A. Africa

153. Since the last report of the Board was published, Guinea-Bissau has acceded to the 1961 Convention, Chad, Guinea-Bissau, Mali and Swaziland have acceded to the 1971 Convention and Algeria, Cape Verde, Chad, Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, Mali and Swaziland have become parties to the 1988 Convention. In Africa, 40 States are parties to the 1961 Convention, 39 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 30 are parties to the 1988 Convention.

154. The Board urges the Governments of Angola, Central African Republic, Comoros, Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Gambia, Mozambique, Namibia, Sao Tome and Principe and United Republic of Tanzania, which are not parties to any of the three main international drug control treaties, to become members of the international drug control system by acceding to the treaties.

155. In 1995, the Board sent missions to Benin, the Gambia, Ghana and Togo (see paragraphs 183-186, below).

156. A training seminar for drug control administrators from countries in northern and western Africa was held by the Board at Tunis in March 1995. At the seminar, which was hosted by the Government of Tunisia, competent authorities reviewed the practical application of control measures, something that is often needed in African countries. Some diversions of controlled substances by using falsified import certificates have already been prevented as a direct result of the seminar. The seminar provided a good opportunity to gather information about methods used in the assessment of medical needs in African countries.

157. The Board appreciates the assistance provided by UNDCP to many African Governments in the development of adequate drug control legislation and in the creation of national coordinating bodies. The Board is aware that in many African States enormous problems have been created by political and social conflict; thus, there are severe economic and social situations that should be dealt with as a matter of priority. At the same time, however, the Board wishes to draw the attention of Governments to the links between the drug problem and criminality and corruption and to their negative effects on, for example, economic stability and public health. The Board urges Governments to speed up the process of the adoption of adequate drug control legislation and the establishment of operational national coordinating bodies.

158. The Board welcomes the adoption in Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, Mauritius and Zambia of new drug legislation that is based on the provisions of the international drug control treaties.

159. The Board appreciates the creation of interministerial drug control coordinating bodies in Angola, Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania.

160. The Board welcomes the initiatives taken to counter money-laundering in several African countries. In Egypt, Ghana, Mauritania and Zambia measures were adopted to implement article 3 of the 1988 Convention, enabling the investigation of money-laundering offences, and article 5, enabling the confiscation of assets derived from illicit drug trafficking. In Kenya, the Narcotic Drug and Psychotropic Substances Control Act of 1994, which provides for the implementation of provisions of the 1988 Convention, includes penal provisions for money-laundering offences and states the possibility to forfeit property and proceeds derived from drug trafficking.

161. Nigeria has concluded an agreement with the United Kingdom on cooperation and mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, with a view to combating money-laundering by seizing assets derived from drug trafficking. In addition, Nigeria has adopted a new law on money-laundering, but the lack of mandatory requirements for financial institutions to monitor transactions made by their customers and to report suspicious transactions unfortunately limit the likelihood of money-laundering activities being detected in that country.

162. In 1994, the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) of Nigeria reported the arrest of eight major organizers of illicit drug trafficking activities. Their personal assets were confiscated and an investigation of their financial accounts was initiated. The Board appreciates the first steps undertaken by NDLEA against such major organizers of the illicit drug traffic, who had in the past managed to avoid conviction.

163. At the Seventh Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Africa, held at Addis Ababa from 14 to 18 October 1994, a working group on consequences of and countermeasures to money-laundering concluded that, in order to combat money-laundering, it was necessary for States to have the proper legislation in place and that voluntary measures alone would not be enough.^{22 (see notes)} The Board urges African States to apply the provisions of the 1988 Convention to counter money-laundering activities.

164. Cannabis is illicitly cultivated in most countries in Africa. Large-scale illicit cannabis cultivation continues in the mountainous Rif area of Morocco. Large seizures of Nigerian cannabis arriving in Europe suggest that there is substantial illicit cannabis cultivation in that country. The eradication of cannabis plantations was reported in Egypt (7 million plants in 1994) and in the Sudan; in South Africa and Swaziland more than 6,000 tonnes of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants were eradicated, mainly by using aerial spraying techniques.

165. According to ICPO/Interpol reports, South Africa is a major supplier of cannabis; yearly illicit cannabis cultivation is estimated to be more than 175,000 tonnes (dry plant weight). Although most of the cannabis cultivated in the country is for domestic abuse, some of it has been smuggled into Europe.

166. According to reports of the World Customs Organization, of the total amount of cannabis resin seized in Europe, the share accounted for by Moroccan cannabis resin increased from 35 per cent in 1992 to over 44 per cent in 1993 and to 70 per cent in 1994. The traffic is organized by criminal gangs having connections with syndicates in western and southern Europe.

167. Western countries have reported the seizure of large consignments of cannabis resin arriving from West Asia through ports in eastern and western Africa. In 1994, 26 tonnes of cannabis resin of Pakistan origin, packed in three containers, were seized in Canada; the cannabis resin had been sent to that country through ports in eastern Africa, via Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa and Uganda. According to ICPO/Interpol, in 1995, 40 tonnes of West Asian cannabis resin were seized in Mozambique.

168. The Board urges African States to increase their efforts to counter the illicit cultivation of and illicit traffic in cannabis and to cooperate with western European States in the development of measures against the joint activities of African and European criminal trafficking organizations. The Board also urges Governments in western Europe to assist African States in their efforts and to take more concrete action against the persisting illicit demand for cannabis in their own countries.

169. A sharp increase in the abuse of cannabis was reported in several countries in western Africa in 1994. In those countries, cannabis is either smoked alone or mixed with cocaine or heroin.

170. Illicit opium poppy cultivation continues in Egypt; however, more than 10 million poppy plants were eradicated in 1994 in remote areas of the Sinai peninsula and along the Nile. Smaller-scale, sporadic opium poppy cultivation has been discovered in Chad, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria.

171. In 1994, there was an increase in heroin seizures in several African countries. Trafficking in heroin originating in Asia has spread from eastern to western Africa. African seaports and airports are frequently used as transit points for large shipments of heroin destined for Europe or North America. Nationals of countries in Africa (mainly western Africa) are frequently used as couriers to transport smaller heroin consignments. At the same time, there is also local abuse of heroin, as it has become readily available at low prices in many major cities in the region.

172. According to ICPO/Interpol, Africans are also increasingly being used as couriers for transporting cocaine from South America through northern and western Africa to Europe.

173. South Africa has expressed its concern over an increase in the availability and abuse of cocaine, particularly in its major cities. The quantity seized and the number of cocaine addicts asking for treatment have increased significantly in the last four years. The abuse of cocaine has been reported in several countries in western Africa, where the practice has spread to the lower social classes due to low cocaine prices. The abuse of crack has been reported in Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa.

174. The Board notes with concern the abuse of psychotropic substances in the region. There is evidence that diversion of legally imported shipments and inadequate supervision of the pharmaceutical supply system play an important role in the propagation of such abuse. The Board appreciates the efforts of several Asian and European States to seek assurance of the legitimacy of orders and import authorizations. The Board recommends that States exporting psychotropic substances should follow the example of India and some European States by asking the authorities of importing States and/or the Board to confirm the authenticity of documents whenever doubts on the legitimacy of transactions exist. At the same time, the Board urges African States importing psychotropic substances to respond in a timely and proper manner to such inquiries.

175. The smuggling of methaqualone out of Bombay into eastern and southern Africa continues; according to ICPO/Interpol, it remains one of the most profitable illegal enterprises, even more profitable than heroin smuggling. The main target country for methaqualone is still South Africa, where the extent of the abuse of Mandrax (a product that combines methaqualone with an antihistamine) is the largest in the world. In South Africa, Mandrax is illegal and is not available even with a prescription, but seizures of methaqualone have been rising in that country in the 1990s.

176. There were attempts to establish clandestine laboratories for the illicit manufacture of methaqualone or other psychotropic substances in several countries in eastern and southern Africa, in particular Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia. A complete laboratory for the manufacture of a hallucinogenic amphetamine derivative, concealed in containers destined for Kenya, was seized by the Belgian customs administration at Antwerp in 1994.

177. The illicit traffic in and abuse of synthetic stimulants (amphetamines and amphetamine-type compounds, such as pemoline) continue to create problems mainly in central and western Africa. Significant amounts of benzodiazepines and ephedrine from India and countries in Europe are frequently smuggled into Africa.

178. The abuse of benzodiazepines, above all diazepam and flunitrazepam, was reported in several African countries. One factor contributing to the problem is the fact that psychotropic pharmaceutical preparations can be obtained easily from legitimate distributors without a medical prescription and from "parallel markets".

179. The Board recommends that UNDCP and WHO should assist African States, upon request, in developing the structures necessary to ensure that their pharmaceutical infrastructure and its supervision are in conformity with international standards.

180. The consumption of khat (Catha edulis) is a controversial issue. The habit is considered by some Governments in Africa to be a problem, but measures against the trade in khat have been taken in only a limited number of countries. The extent of interregional trade in khat (mainly in the eastern part of the continent) is substantial and shipments of khat have been seized in countries on other continents where its trade and use are prohibited. A working group of the Eighth Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Africa, held at Kampala from 23 to 27 October 1995, observed that the consumption of khat had created serious social and health problems in some eastern and central African States; it recommended, inter alia, that States in which khat plants grew should introduce vigorous measures to eradicate the growth of such plants.^{23 (see notes)}

181. There are few demand reduction programmes in Africa; in many countries in the region, the number of treatment facilities is limited. The Board appreciates the efforts of the Government of Nigeria to establish separate drug units in psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric departments of general hospitals. In several African countries, non-governmental organizations have taken steps to establish facilities for the care of drug addicts.

182. In the opinion of the Board, knowledge about drug abuse forms, trends and consequences in Africa is limited. The Board hopes that rapid assessment surveys to be carried out by WHO with UNDCP assistance will contribute to a clarification of the forms of abuse of some drug classes or individual drugs (for example pemoline). The Board is prepared to contribute to those surveys.

183. In April 1995, the Board sent a mission to the Gambia. The main objective of the mission was to promote the accession of that State to the international drug control treaties and to enhance its cooperation with the Board. The Board appreciates that, pursuant to its recommendation, a national drug control council has been established to elaborate a national drug policy. The mission also recommended the Government to allocate appropriate medical staff to the treatment of drug addicts.

184. Also in April 1995, a mission of the Board visited Ghana. The mission found that although the Government of Ghana was seriously committed to meeting its obligations under the international drug control treaties, it should pay more attention to the increased transit traffic in and abuse of cocaine, heroin and psychotropic substances.

185. In June 1995, the Board sent a mission to Benin. The main objective of the mission was to follow up the legal assistance on national drug control legislation provided to the country by UNDCP. The Board urges the Government to speed up the process of ratifying the 1988 Convention and the adoption of the new legislation. The Board recommends the reactivation of the commission responsible for the coordination of drug control matters. There is a need to conduct a drug training programme for judges, if necessary with the assistance of UNDCP. The Board recommends the strengthening of controls, in particular in the autonomous port of Cotonou, which is a potential entry point for illicit drugs.

186. Also in June 1995, a mission of the Board visited Togo to promote that State's compliance with the provisions of international drug control treaties. The Board urges the Government to adopt the comprehensive draft drug control legislation, if necessary with the further assistance of UNDCP. As in the case of Benin, the Board recommends the Government of Togo to revitalize the activities of the coordination commission on drug-related matters and to undertake national training programmes for customs officers, magistrates of the public prosecutor's office and judges. The Board urges the Government of Togo to find an efficient way to destroy the large amounts of seized drugs in that country. In the opinion of the Board, there is a need for a survey to be undertaken to improve the knowledge of the drug abuse situation in Togo.

B. America

1. Central America and the Caribbean

187. In Central America, with the exception of Belize and El Salvador, all States are parties to the 1961 Convention.

188. In Central America, only Belize, El Salvador and Honduras are not parties to the 1971 Convention. In the Caribbean, one half of the States are not parties to that Convention.

189. In Central America, with the exception of Belize, all States are parties to the 1988 Convention. In the Caribbean, Haiti and Saint Lucia acceded to the 1988 Convention in 1995; consequently, Cuba and Jamaica are the only States in that subregion that are not yet parties to that Convention.

190. Both Central America and the Caribbean are heavily affected by the large-scale transit traffic in illicit drugs. Drug traffickers exploit the legislative and administrative loopholes and the lack of coordination in and between a number of countries in those subregions.

191. Seizure data indicate that Central American countries are increasingly being used by international drug traffickers as transit points for transporting illicit drugs, particularly cocaine and heroin, between South and North America, mainly in areas along the Atlantic coast. Large seizures of cannabis and cocaine are signs that, because of their strategic location, Caribbean countries are increasingly being exploited by illicit traffickers as transit points.

192. Drug-related violence is on the increase in the Caribbean, as evidenced by recent events in Saint Kitts and Nevis, where a series of murders have been linked to the illicit drug trade. The Board notes with concern that drug traffickers are gaining a strong foothold in the Caribbean and that they could pose a real threat to political stability in the subregion.

193. Successful interdiction action in the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands, and also in the United States (southern Florida), has led traffickers to shift the focus of their illegal activities to the eastern Caribbean, where controls are seen as less stringent. Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands have become the preferred points of entry into the illicit drug markets in North America. Aruba, the British Virgin Islands, Martinique and Netherlands Antilles are used as gateways to the illicit drug markets in France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

194. The Board hopes that the return of democracy to Haiti and important changes in the administration of a number of Caribbean States and territories will give new impetus for improved drug control.

195. The Board wishes to draw the attention of Governments in Central America and the Caribbean to the importance of there being a continued commitment to define comprehensive drug control policies and to establish the legislative basis and administrative structures that are necessary for the implementation of those policies. The Board appreciates the assistance of UNDCP and encourages States in the region to make use of the possibilities offered by UNDCP.

196. The Board welcomes the initiatives of some Governments aimed at organizing and strengthening regional cooperation. It appreciates the creation of a regional legal centre, with the assistance of UNDCP, in Costa Rica for the improvement of drug control legislation in countries in Central America, and the financial support from the Government of Honduras for the operation of the permanent Central American commission for the eradication of drug abuse, production and illicit trafficking.

197. The Board hopes that the Central American integration system and the recently established association of Caribbean States will be able to deal with those aspects of the drug problem that fall within their purview.

198. The weak banking and financial structures of most countries in Central America make them prime targets for money-laundering activities, a situation that may be substantially aggravated by the existence of significant informal economic sectors that are well beyond governmental control. It is of the utmost importance for all countries in Central America to introduce legislation and to establish the institutional structures required to combat money-laundering effectively, as is being done in Panama. The Board hopes that the operation of the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force will reduce the attractiveness of the Caribbean to persons who engage in money-laundering. The Board appreciates the steps undertaken by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago against money-laundering. Since 1992, local commercial banks have voluntarily reported large deposits of money to the office of strategic services, a unit of the police services. The office has recently published guidelines for the financial sector on money-laundering countermeasures.

199. The Board welcomes the introduction of administrative measures in Costa Rica to ensure that at least part of the confiscated assets of illicit origin are used to fund the operations of its national drug council.

200. More stringent money-laundering legislation is being drafted in the Bahamas and is expected to enter into force in the near future. Although Jamaica is not yet a party to the 1988 Convention, the forfeiture of assets act entered into force in 1994 and the Government has continued to elaborate draft legislation to prevent money-laundering.

201. Cannabis is illicitly cultivated in most countries in Central America and the Caribbean for local illicit consumption. Cannabis remains the most commonly abused drug in the region. Jamaica continues to be a major producer and supplier of cannabis for Europe and North America.

202. The Board notes continuous reports on the cultivation of opium poppy in remote areas of Guatemala.

203. Small coca bush cultivation sites have reportedly been detected in southern Panama.

204. Increasing cocaine abuse has been reported in several countries in the region.

205. Pharmaceutical preparations containing psychotropic substances are not prescribed, dispensed and distributed in conformity with the provisions of the 1971 Convention in most countries in the region. The Board urges all States that have not already done so to introduce and implement regulatory measures and controls that are necessary to prevent the abuse of stimulants and sedatives. The Board invites Governments to harmonize and coordinate action taken against the diversion and smuggling of such pharmaceutical preparations.

206. The Board highly appreciates the efforts of CICAD and the Pan American Health Organization aimed at improving knowledge of the drug abuse situation in the region. The growing availability of drugs of abuse, mainly cannabis and cocaine, because of the increasing use of Central America and the Caribbean as transit points by international drug traffickers, and the marginalization of large segments of the population, mainly in the metropolitan areas of some countries, might contribute to a large-scale spread of drug abuse. The Board encourages Governments of countries in Central America and the Caribbean, as a matter of high priority, to participate actively in more initiatives aimed at preventing and reducing drug abuse. Although it highly appreciates the activity of non-governmental organizations in the treatment and rehabilitation of addicts, the Board considers it to be its duty to remind Governments of their responsibilities in that area.

207. Large quantities of ephedrine from Asia and Europe were channelled through Guatemala to Mexico and the United States for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. A short mission to Guatemala in March 1995 dealt with legislative and organizational problems. The Board is confident that Guatemala and other States in the region will exercise the necessary vigilance with regard to orders of large quantities of ephedrine and similar substances not destined for the licit manufacture of pharmaceuticals within the country and that those States are intervening in a timely fashion (see paragraphs 129-131, above); however, no seizures of any precursors have been reported in the region.

2. North America

208. All three countries in North America Canada, Mexico and the United States are parties to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention.

209. In 1995, the Board sent a mission to Canada (see paragraphs 225-226, below).

210. The main goal of the United States drug control strategy of 1995 in particular and drug policy in general is to reduce the number of drug abusers in the United States. The strategy is linked to efforts to empower communities, curb youth violence and preserve families. The United States drug policy is, therefore, considered by the Government to be a cornerstone of domestic policy in general and of social policy in particular. Other key principles of this strategy include coordinated law enforcement efforts, prevention programmes targeting youth and other high-risk groups such as inner city youth, pregnant women and women of child-bearing age. The strategy also targets chronic hard-core addicts to reduce their drug abuse and its consequences. Needle exchange schemes constitute a new element of the programmes. Sharing of needles among drug abusers is a primary transmission route of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); in 1993, 69 per cent of reported acquired immunodeficiency virus (AIDS) cases among women were attributed to injecting of illicit drugs. It is expected that through needle exchange programmes the frequency of needle-sharing and the increase in the incidence of HIV infection among drug abusers might be reduced. The Board welcomes the United States Government's unequivocal policy position against any form of legalization of the non-medical use of drugs.

211. There has been a liberalization of trade between Mexico and the United States in recent months following the coming into force of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and consequent measures to facilitate that trade. There is some concern that that development may adversely affect the interdiction of cocaine coming across the Mexican border into the United States. The Board, therefore, welcomes the new initiative of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (of the Executive Office of the President) aimed at identifying and terminating drug smuggling operations on the south-west border of the United States.

212. The Board notes with satisfaction that Mexico has continued its multifaceted campaign against illicit cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking and abuse of drugs in line with the 1988 Convention. Mexico has a well-organized institutional drug control structure and has allocated significant resources to demand reduction and control measures.

213. The Board welcomes the action of the Government of Mexico aimed at eliminating corruption of officials and strengthening legal controls to prevent money-laundering, which remains a serious problem in that country. The Board hopes that the recently introduced stiffer penalties and other measures will improve the possibilities for the prevention and prosecution of money-laundering activities. The Board notes with concern that the considerable volume of financial flows between Canada and the United States has contributed to the attractiveness of Canada for persons who engage in money-laundering.

214. Exploitation of the growing number of casinos by persons engaged in money-laundering activities has continued in the United States. The authorities of the United States have recently discovered new methods to carry out such activities, including the use of swaps (international currency transactions).

215. Illicit cannabis cultivation continues in all three countries, despite some successful eradication campaigns. Increasing indoor cannabis cultivation has been reported in the United States. This form of cultivation permits year-round production and can be accomplished in a variety of settings, ranging from several plants grown in a closet to thousands of plants grown in elaborate, especially constructed (sometimes underground) greenhouse operations. Indoor cultivators try to enhance the potency of cannabis through selective breeding and cloning of high-potency cultivars. Indoor cultivation is also used for the selection and isolation of female plants for sinsemilla production. In 1994, the average tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of outdoor cultivated cannabis was 4.3 per cent, a substantial increase compared with the late 1970s and early 1980s, when that average was under 2 per cent. The average THC content of sinsemilla cannabis was about 7.4 per cent in 1994 but some of the seized samples had a THC content of more than 24 per cent.

216. Despite the increasing amounts of cannabis seized by Mexican law enforcement authorities, Mexico remains a supplier of the illicit cannabis markets in the United States. Substantial quantities of cannabis are also smuggled into the United States out of other countries, particularly Colombia, Thailand and, increasingly, Jamaica. At the same time, the market share of locally produced cannabis is on the increase in Canada and the United States (30 and 25 per cent, respectively). A sharp increase in cannabis resin seizures was reported in the United States (more than 72 tonnes in 1994, compared with 11.4 tonnes in 1993).

217. Cannabis remains the most abused illicit drug in the region. During the last three years, following a continuous decrease from 1985 to 1992, an increase in cannabis abuse among youth has been observed in the United States. This trend is attributed to a decline in the level of perceived risk of abuse, while the actual risk has been increased by the higher potency of the drug. Widespread abuse of "blunts" (smoking of cigars in which tobacco was replaced by cannabis) has been recently reported in the United States. In some cases the same cigars are filled with a mixture of cannabis and either phencyclidine (PCP) or cocaine.

218. Opium poppy is cultivated illicitly in Mexico. The opium produced is used for the illicit manufacture of heroin, which is usually smuggled into the United States. The proportion of heroin of Mexican origin on the illicit market in the United States is relatively small (estimated to be about 5 per cent), compared with the proportion of heroin arriving from south-east Asia and South America (57 and 32 per cent, respectively).

219. Growing heroin abuse has been reported in Canada, particularly in urban areas. Heroin abuse is also on the increase in the United States, where injecting remains the principal route of administration (used by an estimated 62 per cent of heroin abusers). The 63,000 heroin-related emergency room admissions in 1993 represents an increase of 22 per cent compared with the figure for 1992 and an increase of 50 per cent compared with the 1989 figure. The relatively high purity of heroin at the retail level (an average of 40 per cent) might be a contributing factor. In order to enhance the euphoric effect of cocaine and to relieve the depression following the cessation of cocaine administration, a growing number of hard-core cocaine (particularly crack) abusers in the United States have also become abusers of heroin.

220. In the United States, because of the large illicit supply of cocaine from South America (more than 100 tonnes were seized in 1994), that drug is freely available in most major cities. There was a spectacular decrease in the number of occasional cocaine abusers from 1985 (an estimated 12 million) to 1993 (about 4 million). In 1994, however, increasing cocaine abuse and a growing number of cocaine-related emergency room admissions were reported. In Canada, cocaine abuse has been declining. In Mexico, where the extent of drug abuse in general and cocaine abuse in particular is not comparable with the situation in the United States, some increase in cases involving cocaine abuse has been observed in the proximity of the northern borders of the country.

221. In the United States, clandestine manufacture of, illicit traffic in and abuse of methamphetamine are on the increase and constitute significant problems. In Mexico and the United States, there is a direct link between clandestine methamphetamine manufacture and diversion of ephedrine, its most important precursor, from licit sources. Ephedrine is available from two sources: diversion (or smuggling into the country) of pharmaceutical preparations containing ephedrine from which ephedrine can be easily extracted; and diversion of ephedrine into the United States from (or via) countries where the provisions of the 1988 Convention for monitoring ephedrine shipments are not properly implemented. The Board recommends the Government of the United States to consider the restriction of the availability of ephedrine tablets without medical prescription. In order to prevent the availability of ephedrine for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine, the relevant legislation was strengthened in the United States by the domestic chemical control act of 1993, which entered into force in 1994. The Board welcomes the decision on the application of similar control measures against the diversion of pseudoephedrine tablets, which are being increasingly used by clandestine manufacturers instead of ephedrine. Direct communication between the Board and the competent authorities of the United States and other countries led to the detection and seizure of important quantities of ephedrine, including the seizure of 6,668 kg in Mexico, in 1994 (see paragraph 207, above). Ephedrine is also used as a precursor for the clandestine manufacture of methcathinone. In 1994, 20 such laboratories were seized in the United States. Nasal inhalation is the most common form of methcathinone abuse in the United States, but there are also other routes for its administration (injection, oral ingestion and smoking (laced in cannabis)). (For the abuse of methcathinone in member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), where it is known as ephedrone, see paragraphs 370-372, below.)

222. Problems connected with the sharp increase in the volume of the licit manufacture and use of methylphenidate resulting from the large-scale prescribing of that drug to children for the treatment of attention deficit disorder in the United States are described in paragraphs 90-94, above.

223. Illicit traffic in and abuse of hallucinogens are on the increase in the United States. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is sold mostly in small tablets ("microdots") or in the form of small paper squares ("stamps") that have been soaked with a solution containing that substance. Crystalline LSD, manufactured in clandestine laboratories in the United States, is very often smuggled out of that country, mainly into Europe. The Board urges the Government of the United States to pay special attention to the detection and interception of clandestine LSD laboratories, which are the major suppliers of illicit drug markets in Europe. The number of seized PCP laboratories is again on the increase, but the level of the abuse of that drug is not comparable with the epidemic levels reached in the 1960s and 1970s. Propagation of the abuse of hallucinogens is linked with all-night dance ("rave") parties. In the United States, as in Europe, MDMA and some other hallucinogenic amphetamine derivatives are the most popular drugs used during such parties. MDMA is synthesized in clandestine laboratories in the United States and large amounts of it are smuggled into that country, mainly out of or through Mexico.

224. The spreading abuse of flunitrazepam has been recently reported in the United States. Significant quantities of flunitrazepam tablets have been smuggled into the country.

225. A mission of the Board visited Canada in March 1995. The Board appreciates the very comprehensive demand reduction strategy of the Government of Canada that has been conducted since 1987. The strategy has focused on the prevention and reduction of alcohol abuse. The Board notes that, according to a review in 1992, the strategy has led also to positive results regarding the abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. The Board encourages the Government to share the results of current and future reviews with interested governments and the Board. The Board hopes that the combining of demand reduction methods with efforts in supply reduction will continue in Canada and lead to the expected results.

226. The Board is confident that the Government of Canada will speed up the adoption and implementation of the new legislation (bill C 7) because current laws are not in conformity with the requirements of the 1971 Convention, which was ratified by Canada in 1987. Full application of provisions regarding substances in Schedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention and the related Economic and Social Council resolutions is foreseen by the draft legislation adopted by the Parliament on 30 October 1995 and currently under consideration by the Senate.

3. South America

227. In 1995, Uruguay ratified the 1988 Convention. With the exception of Guyana, which is not a party to the 1961 Convention, all States in South America are parties to the three main international drug control treaties. The Board urges the Government of Guyana to accede to the 1961 Convention as soon as possible, especially considering the strategic location of the country.

228. In 1995, at the request of the Government of Colombia, the Board sent a mission to that country (see paragraphs 242-246, below). Also in 1995, a joint mission of the Board and UNDCP visited Brazil (see paragraph 247-249, below).

229. The Board appreciates the efforts made by CICAD to fill the gap left by the dissolution of the South American Agreement on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (ASEP) and hopes that the necessary priority will be given to coordination and the exchange of information at the regional level. The Board also appreciates UNDCP initiatives aimed at promoting comprehensive subregional strategies and programmes, which started in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru in 1994,^{24 (see notes)} and it hopes that those efforts will contribute to the improvement of subregional cooperation.

230. The Board is confident that the declaration of principles and the plan of action adopted by the summit of the Americas, held at Miami, United States, in December 1994, which have already led to several joint activities, will translate into a comprehensive continental policy.

231. Bolivia undertook in 1994 a complete ministerial restructuring, which should be followed up by an updating of its national drug control plan of 1993. The Board notes with satisfaction that in Peru, where a national drug control plan was adopted in 1994, the Government has already passed legislation on the creation of a national system for drug abuse prevention and control to facilitate the execution of that plan.

232. The Board urges all Governments in South America to consider the fight against money-laundering a matter of the highest priority, so that the large flow of capital stemming from illicit drug production, manufacture and trafficking will not have a long-lasting negative economic, social and political impact. Several countries in South America, however, still need to lay down the legal foundations for combating money-laundering in all its complexity, including the adoption of legal provisions for freezing capital and seizing assets of illicit origin, the establishment of the institutions required to monitor financial markets closely and the introduction of administrative measures to enable such institutions to detect suspicious transactions promptly. The Board takes note with appreciation of the legislative measures adopted by the Governments of Chile (in 1994) and Colombia (in 1995) to make money-laundering a criminal offence.

233. Cannabis continues to be cultivated in South America, mostly in Brazil and Colombia. Large amounts of cannabis are smuggled out of Colombia, as evidenced by substantial cannabis seizures in Europe and North America. In other South American countries, cannabis is grown mainly for local consumption; in most countries in the region, cannabis remains the main drug of abuse.

234. Repeated seizures of high-purity heroin of Colombian origin in some countries in Europe and North America seems to indicate that illicit poppy cultivation, opium production and heroin and/or morphine manufacture have continued in that country, using primarily the trafficking networks of the illicit cocaine trade. Even though no illicit poppy cultivation was reported in other countries in South America in 1995, Governments in the region should continue to be on the watch for possible expansion and subsequent damaging effects of such cultivation in a region with no tradition of opium production or heroin and/or morphine manufacture, where the spread of such activity would further complicate illicit drug trafficking and abuse patterns.

235. Coca bush cultivation and coca leaf production patterns remained unchanged throughout 1995. The largest coca leaf producer in the world continues to be Peru, followed by Bolivia. The Board notes with appreciation the renewed efforts made by the Bolivian and particularly the Colombian Governments to step up eradication programmes, even in the face of strongly organized and highly publicized local opposition.

236. The Board has repeatedly drawn the attention of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs to the fact that the opinions and practices of the Governments of Argentina, Bolivia and Peru in respect of licit and illicit coca bush cultivation and coca leaf production and consumption are not in conformity with the provisions of the 1961 Convention.^{25 (see notes)} In 1994, the Bolivian Government officially requested WHO to carry out scientific studies to determine the nature and properties of coca leaves. The Board recommends that WHO should not limit its study to the clarification of the alleged medicinal value of coca leaves but should clearly define its opinion in respect of the abuse potential of coca leaves and the public health consequences of the different forms of coca leaf consumption.

237. Coca paste continues to be produced mostly in Bolivia and Peru. It is smuggled out of those countries into Colombia for final processing into cocaine hydrochloride. Cocaine hydrochloride is also increasingly being manufactured in Bolivia and Peru, though on a smaller scale.

238. Coca paste is easily available in producer countries such as Bolivia, Colombia and Peru, where it is usually smoked mixed with tobacco. The abuse of coca paste continues to pose serious social and health problems in those countries. In transit countries, where traffickers usually pay their partners in kind, cocaine hydrochloride is increasingly becoming available at relatively low prices; consequently, cocaine abuse has become a growing social burden. The incidence of abuse of opiates in South America continues to be relatively low, but increased availability from producing areas within the region could substantially change the situation for the worse.

239. The increasing abuse of psychotropic substances, particularly anxiolytics (minor tranquillizers) and amphetamine-type drugs, has been reported mainly in the urban areas of some countries in South America. In the opinion of the Board, the dispensing and distribution of pharmaceutical preparations containing psychotropic substances without medical prescription or through non-rational prescribing practices are major factors contributing to the propagation of their abuse. The Board appreciates the fact that, in Brazil, anti-obesity medicaments containing anorectic amphetamine-like substances in combination with sedatives were withdrawn from the market in 1994; ^{26 (see notes)} however, the large-scale prescribing and utilization of amphetamine-type compounds continue, mainly in Argentina, Brazil and Chile, and are in contrast with medical practices in most countries in the world.

240. The prevention of the activities of clandestine laboratories and the detection of such laboratories are often hindered by the unregulated and uncontrolled flow of chemicals and solvents needed for the illicit manufacture of coca paste and cocaine hydrochloride. The chemicals and solvents usually arrive in South America from Europe and the United States. Some of the chemicals and solvents enter the region illegally, but most of them are legally imported by legitimate enterprises or "front" companies and are diverted into illicit channels. Most countries in the region lack the institutional structures and financial and technical resources to effectively control goods trafficked by road, particularly in the Amazon basin, where most of the international boundaries dividing Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela lie. Those remote, uncontrolled areas are used by drug traffickers to supply their coca paste laboratories in Bolivia and Peru and their cocaine-processing laboratories in Colombia with the required chemicals and solvents.

241. Until all countries in South America are capable of defining and implementing, within adequate legal frameworks, consistent and comprehensive policies that are carried out by efficient governmental agencies, chemicals and solvents will continue to enter the region and will have, in the long term, a negative effect on the results of even the most effective law enforcement efforts.

242. A mission of the Board visited Colombia from 28 August to 1 September 1995. The Board notes with satisfaction the successful eradication and interdiction efforts in Colombia, which led to the destruction of a great number of illicit coca bush and opium poppy cultivation sites and to the seizure of several clandestine laboratories and substantial amounts of illicit drugs.

243. The Board highly appreciates the successful action undertaken in Colombia against powerful drug cartels, which constitute a constant menace to the economic and political stability of the country. The Medellín cartel was dismantled in 1993 and the leaders of the Cali cartel have recently been arrested. The Board expects that the arrests will be followed by the urgent completion of the judicial process against those criminals and by their severe punishment.

244. The Board welcomes the adoption of a national plan on drug control by the National Narcotics Council of Colombia and the support given to it by the highest authorities of the country. The plan contains measures for the eradication of illicit crops and for other law enforcement action, provisions against money-laundering, and projects for alternative development, prevention and rehabilitation. The Board will continue to watch closely the implementation of that plan.

245. Colombia acceded to the 1988 Convention in 1994, but the Board regrets the significant reservations contained in the instrument of ratification. At the same time, the Board notes with satisfaction the progress made in the country in respect of the implementation of some provisions of the 1988 Convention, particularly the strengthening of controls over chemicals and solvents used in the illicit manufacture of cocaine, in conformity with CICAD model legislation. The Board notes with appreciation that pursuant to its request the same controls were extended to other substances under the control regime of the 1988 Convention, particularly to ephedrine and pseudoephedrine.

246. The Board trusts that political difficulties will not reduce the strong commitment of Colombia to conduct the fight against drug trafficking organizations and illicit cultivation, production and manufacture of drugs. Drug trafficking organizations are increasingly losing the support of the population, and the Board is convinced that the majority of Colombian society will support the authorities in the fight against drug trafficking.

247. Brazil had not been controlling adequately the manufacture and distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.^{27 (see notes)} In August 1995, a joint mission of the Board and UNDCP visited Brazil in order to assist the competent national authorities in the development of new drug control legislation. The new draft law is to create a sound legal basis for the control of licit drugs and for the fight against illicit drugs. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government has already decided to present the new draft legislation prepared in cooperation with the mission to the Parliament and recommends the Government to consider its adoption an issue of high priority.

248. The Board notes with concern that existing legislation does not ensure the prevention of money-laundering activities and the prosecution of persons engaged in such activities. The Board urges the Government of Brazil to undertake, as soon as possible, the development, adoption and implementation of adequate legislation because the country's situation makes it attractive to persons who engage in money-laundering.

249. The Board is aware of the enormous difficulties encountered in controlling the movement of illicit goods in the Amazon basin (see paragraph 240, above). It encourages the Government of Brazil to initiate national and regional action to improve that situation, if necessary in cooperation with UNDCP.

C. Asia

1. East and South-East Asia

250. Of the 15 States in East and South-East Asia, 12 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 9 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 5 are parties to the 1988 Convention. Cambodia, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Viet Nam are not yet parties to any of the international drug control treaties.

251. In 1995, the Board sent a mission to Singapore (see paragraphs 268-272, below).

252. In May 1995, a protocol to the 1993 memorandum of understanding between the Governments of China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Thailand and UNDCP was signed at a ministerial meeting at Beijing. The protocol extended the scope of the memorandum of understanding to include Cambodia and Viet Nam. The Board highly appreciates the increasing cooperation between countries in the region. The Board welcomes the conclusion of an agreement on mutual cooperation in drug control between the competent authorities of Myanmar and Viet Nam. The Board is, however, concerned about the delay in the adoption of adequate drug control legislation in Viet Nam and encourages the Government of that country, which is receiving increased international assistance, to ratify the international drug control treaties and to cooperate with the Board by providing the necessary information on drug control issues.

253. In Cambodia, new drug legislation has been drafted with UNDCP assistance; it is being considered by the Government for adoption.

254. The Board regrets that its training seminar for drug control administrators of southern and eastern Asia could not take place in Malaysia, but the Board plans to hold such a seminar in early 1996.

255. Money-laundering is considered a major problem by several Governments in the region. In China, many financial transactions are conducted through informal channels without the involvement of financial institutions. This informal banking system offers plenty of opportunities for money-laundering and makes it difficult for the Government to introduce countermeasures. Investment opportunities in China are also exploited by persons engaged in money-laundering. The Board appreciates that the authorities of Hong Kong and Singapore, two major financial centres in the region, are improving the controls over financial institutions and are implementing recommendations on the prevention of money-laundering formulated by the Financial Action Task Force.

256. The Board welcomes the increased attention being given by Governments to demand reduction programmes. In Viet Nam, the national drug control programmes include the treatment, rehabilitation and social reintegration of drug abusers. In Thailand, the drug abuse prevention plan for the period 1992-1996 is focused on the extension of knowledge and understanding of drug abuse and its prevention and on the development of a social environment conducive to drug-free lifestyles.

257. The Board appreciates the action taken by the Government of Japan in the field of drug demand reduction, the conducting of preventive educational programmes and the treatment and rehabilitation of addicts. It is hoped that the policy of the Government of Japan, which combines law enforcement efforts with a demand reduction strategy, will prevent the development of a situation characterized by large-scale drug abuse, as has happened in other developed countries.

258. In some villages in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, programmes for the prevention of drug abuse and the detoxification and rehabilitation of drug abusers have been established with UNDCP assistance. In the Philippines, almost 3,000 people are treated in 29 treatment and rehabilitation centres. There are compulsory treatment and rehabilitation programmes for addicts in China, Singapore and Viet Nam.

259. Cannabis grows wild and is extensively cultivated in many countries in south-east Asia. In Thailand, cannabis cultivation is spreading from the northern and north-eastern provinces to other parts of the country. According to the Government of Thailand, about 900 tonnes of cannabis are illicitly produced in the country each year. In Indonesia, 50 tonnes of cannabis were seized and 37 hectares of illicitly cultivated cannabis were destroyed in July 1994. According to the Government of the Philippines, the country has become a producer of very potent cannabis, which is illicitly exported to Australia and Japan. In December 1994, a shipment of 1 tonne of cannabis was seized in Hong Kong. The illicit export of cannabis from south-east Asia to Australia, Japan, the United States and other countries is substantial. At the same time, cannabis of Nigerian origin is also frequently seized in Hong Kong and Japan.

260. Cannabis is the main drug of abuse in Indonesia and the Philippines, but its abuse has also been reported in most countries in south-east Asia.

261. Illicit poppy cultivation and opium production continue in south-east Asia. The largest producer of opium remains Myanmar; in that country, illicit poppy cultivation and opium production take place mainly in Shan State. Largely because of the activity of insurgent groups in such cultivation areas along the borders of Myanmar, no reliable information is available on the extent of illicit poppy cultivation and opium production. The Board hopes that the improvement of the political situation in those areas of Myanmar will allow the undertaking of alternative development projects. Illicit poppy cultivation has been reduced considerably in the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam as a consequence of development projects and eradication programmes. There are reports of some illicit poppy cultivation and opium production in Cambodia and in China, mainly in remote areas of Yunnan Province.

262. Opium smoking still persists as a tradition in some countries in south-east Asia, but a falling trend has emerged. This is the case among hill-tribes in the northern part of the Lao People's Democratic Republic and in Viet Nam. At Ho Chi Minh City and in other urban centres in Viet Nam, the practice of injecting "blackwater" opium (i.e. raw morphine extracted from opium smoking residue), often mixed with other drugs (pethidine or diazepam), is becoming a problem.

263. Heroin manufacture has reportedly increased in Myanmar. Clandestine laboratories are located in the opium production areas in Myanmar, mainly in Shan State, along the border where acetic anhydride illicitly enters the country from neighbouring countries. The operation of small heroin laboratories has been reported in northern border areas in Thailand. South-east Asia is a major supplier of illicit heroin markets throughout the world but substantial quantities are consumed locally. There are many trafficking routes leading from Cambodia, Hong Kong and Thailand to Australia, the United States and countries in Europe. In some cases countries in western Africa are used as transit points. There are signs that China, above all Yunnan Province and Guangzhou, is increasingly being used as a transit point for trafficking heroin. In the past three years, Chinese authorities have seized between 4 and 4.5 tonnes of heroin annually.

264. Rapid growth of heroin addiction has been observed in south-east Asia. The shift from opium abuse to heroin abuse continues among hill-tribes in the mountainous areas of south-east Asia, but heroin abuse has also been reported in some urban centres in, for example, Myanmar, where it was almost non-existent two years ago.

265. Phensedyl (a cough medicine containing codeine and, in some cases, ephedrine) is abused in south-east Asia and in South Asia (see paragraphs 284, below). Seizures of that product are frequently reported in Myanmar and the Philippines.

266. Among psychotropic substances, methamphetamine (commonly called "ice" or "shabu") represents a major drug problem. Illicit methamphetamine manufacture, trafficking and abuse constitute a major concern of countries in the region, particularly in east Asia. The illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in mainland China, China (Taiwan Province), the Philippines and Thailand, the illicit methamphetamine traffic in Hong Kong, Japan and the Republic of Korea, and methamphetamine abuse in Japan, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea and Thailand are connected with the activities of criminal organizations in east Asia. Increasing amounts of ephedrine, the most important precursor for methamphetamine manufacture, are reportedly being seized in mainland China, as well in Taiwan Province of China. More than 1 tonne of methamphetamine was seized in China during the 1990s and other important seizures of methamphetamine have been reported by China (Taiwan Province), Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines and Republic of Korea. Substantial amounts of methamphetamine are smuggled out of east Asia into the United States, where abuse of that substance seems to be increasing. Action to prevent the illicit manufacture of and the illicit traffic in methamphetamine and ephedrine is described in paragraphs 127-143, above.

267. The extent of the illicit traffic in and abuse of other psychotropic substances is not comparable to that of methamphetamine, but growing abuse of benzodiazepines has been reported in some countries in the region. Weaknesses in the control of the pharmaceutical supply system, as evidenced by, for example, over-the-counter dispensing of prescription pharmaceutical preparations, contribute to the spread of their abuse. The Board recommends that the Governments of Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Viet Nam should develop adequate pharmaceutical supply systems, ensuring proper supervision of the distribution of pharmaceuticals and restriction of the sale of medicines on "parallel markets". In addition, the Board recommends that WHO and other international organizations should assist those Governments in their efforts.

268. A mission of the Board visited Singapore in September 1995. Singapore had been used to divert large quantities of cough mixtures containing codeine and some consignments of psychotropic substances from licit trade into illicit channels. The Board appreciates the determination of the Government of Singapore to stop diversion and to cooperate with other countries and the Board to that end.

269. The Board notes with concern the absence in Singapore of control measures for international trade in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in free ports and zones. The Board requests the Government of Singapore to adopt and implement such control measures as soon as possible, pursuant to the provisions of the 1961 Convention and the 1971 Convention.

270. The Board appreciates the steps taken by the Government of Singapore to implement the provisions of the 1988 Convention. The Board trusts that Singapore will soon accede to that Convention. Several provisions of the 1988 Convention are especially important to Singapore, which is being used as a major transshipment point. The Board invites the Government to participate in regional meetings on the control of precursors.

271. Singapore has introduced measures against money-laundering (see also paragraph 255, above) that have already led to the seizure and confiscation of assets derived from illicit drug trafficking. The Board welcomes the information received from Singapore on the total value of seized and confiscated assets. The Board invites other countries to follow the example of Singapore.

272. The Board notes that the drug abuse situation in Singapore has remained stable for the last 20 years.

2. South Asia

273. Of the six States in South Asia, four are parties to the 1961 Convention and three are parties to the 1971 Convention. All of the States in the region except Maldives are parties to the 1988 Convention.

274. The Board appreciates the increasing cooperation between members of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC). The SAARC Convention on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, aimed at ensuring the proper implementation of the provisions of the 1988 Convention, has been ratified by all States in the region.

275. Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka are updating their national laws, bringing them into conformity with treaty obligations. The Board is confident that the ongoing amendment of national laws, assisted by UNDCP, will create a sound legal basis for the control of suspicious financial transactions.

276. The Board welcomes the increasing cooperation between the law enforcement authorities of India and Pakistan, as well as the increase in the number of bilateral drug control agreements between States in South Asia and States in other parts of the world.

277. In Bangladesh, it is expected that the national coastguard, established in 1995, will, once it has been provided with adequate personnel, training and equipment, play a crucial role in reducing illicit drug supply.

278. Cannabis grows wild and is also widely cultivated in South Asia. In Sri Lanka, 300 tonnes of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants were destroyed in a jungle area in 1994. Cannabis eradication campaigns are launched every year in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. In the northern part of Bangladesh, where cannabis was not prohibited until 1984, former cannabis growers are requesting compensation for losses caused by the ban on its cultivation. The Government of Bangladesh should make every effort to eradicate such cultivation and should consider the development of agricultural projects aimed at providing alternative income to former traditional cannabis growers. National and international developing agencies should consider cooperating in such endeavours just as they do in other parts of the world, in particular with respect to traditional opium poppy or coca bush growers.

279. In South Asia, most of the cannabis is abused locally. In Sri Lanka, however, because of the large-scale production of cannabis, it is exported illegally to Australia and countries in Europe. Cannabis abuse has continued in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka, the number of cannabis abusers has been estimated to be 200,000. Large amounts of cannabis resin are smuggled out of Nepal and Pakistan into India. The abuse of cannabis oil (hashish oil) has been reported in Maldives. In Maldives, drug trafficking does not constitute a significant problem, but the rapid growth in tourism has been accompanied by an increase in the number of foreign nationals involved in that illicit activity.

280. In India, licensed farmers licitly cultivate poppy plants and licitly produce opium under governmental control (see paragraphs 72-77, above). To prevent diversion, Indian authorities have intensified the supervision of licit opium production areas and have conducted eradication campaigns in other states where illicit poppy cultivation was detected. The abuse of opium has continued in some Indian states.

281. The clandestine manufacture of heroin has been reported in India and large amounts of heroin have been smuggled into South Asia out of south-east and south-west Asia. Cooperation between Indian and Pakistan law enforcement authorities has improved, leading to some successes, but traffickers are seeking new routes for smuggling heroin into India out of Afghanistan and Pakistan. There are reports that the territories of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka are increasingly being used for the transshipment of heroin from south-east and south-west Asia. Most of the heroin smuggled into Europe out of Sri Lanka enters that country from India. Sri Lankan drug traffickers seem to have developed close links with traffickers in India and Pakistan, with a view to transporting heroin of south-west Asian origin through both countries.

282. The spread of heroin abuse constitutes a major problem in South Asia. In India, heroin abuse was initially confined to metropolitan areas and the north-eastern states bordering Myanmar, but has since then spread to rural areas as well. Drug addiction is found in all parts of Indian society; however, the majority of heroin addicts are at the lower and lowest income levels. In the north-eastern states of India heroin is commonly injected. Elsewhere in the country, until only about three years ago, the methods used to administer heroin had been, by and large, confined to smoking and inhaling. Since then, heroin abuse by injection has spread to Bombay, Delhi, Madras and other metropolitan areas and even to rural areas. This trend has contributed to an alarming increase in the incidence of HIV/AIDS infection (see also paragraph 285, below).

283. In Sri Lanka, the number of heroin abusers has increased in the past three years. Heroin has become the main drug of abuse. For the time being, inhalation is the common method used to administer heroin; parenteral administration seems to be marginal. In the past, Bangladesh was used as a transit country for heroin destined for Europe or North America; however, local heroin abuse also started a few years ago. In Bangladesh, those who abuse heroin usually do so by inhaling it, but in 1995, signs of the growing abuse of heroin by injection were observed in the country for the first time. In Nepal, heroin abuse is on the rise. In that country, "chasing the dragon" (inhalation) is the main method used to administer heroin but the number of addicts who inject heroin is also substantial.

284. The abuse (drinking) of an antitussive, Phensedyl syrup, has been reported in several countries in South Asia. In India, it is reportedly being used as a cheap substitute for drugs or alcohol; in Nepal, to prevent such abuse, the sale of Phensedyl and other codeine-based cough syrups has been prohibited. Increasing abuse of Phensedyl was reported in Bangladesh. Phensedyl, once available only in 250 ml medicine bottles that were smuggled into Bangladesh out of India, can now be found in large barrels. The codeine phosphate content of some Phensedyl batches found on the illicit markets in Bangladesh and Nepal is much higher than that of the Phensedyl that is licitly available in India. According to the Government of Bangladesh, Phensedyl has become the main drug of abuse among young people in some areas of the country, including Dhaka. Illicit traffic in and abuse of Phensedyl and other similar cough syrups have created problems in some south-east Asian countries as well (for example, Myanmar; see also paragraph 265, above). The Board invites the Governments of the countries concerned to provide further information on the composition of such pharmaceutical products, on regulations in respect of their marketing and distribution and on the forms of abuse.

285. In the past, only a few cases of abuse of synthetic opioids (mainly pethidine and pentazocine) were reported in South Asia. This situation has changed drastically following the manufacture and marketing of buprenorphine in India. Because of the weakness of controls over the pharmaceutical supply system, injectable buprenorphine preparations are, despite existing prescription obligations, easily available in the region without a medical prescription. An alarming increase of buprenorphine abuse has been reported in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, contributing to the spread of HIV infection. In India, buprenorphine is commonly used in drug treatment centres in the detoxification of heroin addicts. Moreover, buprenorphine maintenance is advocated as an indigenous alternative to methadone maintenance. In 1994, India organized a national meeting on the prevention of buprenorphine abuse. A considerable amount of buprenorphine is being illicitly transported from India to countries in other regions, for example, to CIS member States.

286. In the opinion of the Board, the control system of buprenorphine should be revised by WHO and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. Recent developments warrant the application of stricter control measures such as those for similar potent opioids in Schedule I of the 1961 Convention.

287. There have been only a few reports on cocaine abuse in Bangladesh, India and Nepal.

288. The Board appreciates the efforts of the Government of India to prevent the diversion of psychotropic substances licitly exported from that country. Between 1993 and 1995, the Indian authorities and the Board investigated about 80 commercial orders, thereby preventing the diversion of stimulants (pemoline), phenobarbital, benzodiazepines (chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, nitrazepam) and buprenorphine into illicit channels in Africa, the Americas, Asia and Europe (see also paragraphs 99 and 174, above).

289. The illicit manufacture of methaqualone has continued in India in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Goa. Significant quantities of that substance are being smuggled into African countries (see paragraphs 175, above); there are signs that traffickers have begun to use Sri Lanka as a transit country. Indian law enforcement agencies are vigorously combating illicit methaqualone manufacture and trafficking; seizures in India increased from 15 tonnes in 1993 to more than 43 tonnes in 1994. In 1994, seven clandestine laboratories were destroyed in the country.

290. The abuse of sedatives and tranquillizers (barbiturates and benzodiazepines) seems to be on the rise in South Asia. The availability of a growing number of such pharmaceuticals and the inadequate supervision of the pharmaceutical supply system are factors contributing to the increase in the abuse of pharmaceuticals containing psychotropic substances. There have been reports that most pharmaceutical preparations are available without a medical prescription. The Board recommends that States in the region should ensure that their pharmaceutical legislation conforms with international standards and should strengthen control over the distribution of pharmaceutical products. It invites WHO to assist States in the region in the development of adequate pharmaceutical regulatory control systems. The Board welcomes the initiative taken by the Government of India in organizing an expert meeting on the legal and administrative arrangements for the control of medicines to prevent their abuse.

291. In 1993, India instituted a system to regulate the trade in acetic anhydride and the Board trusts that the control system will be efficiently implemented. As a first result of the controls, large amounts of acetic anhydride have been seized in Gujarat and Rajasthan and at the border between India and Pakistan. It is suspected that significant quantities of that reagent are being exported illegally to Afghanistan, Myanmar and Pakistan and diverted within India for the illicit manufacture of heroin.

292. India is taking measures to control the manufacture and export of N-acetylanthranilic acid but, in the opinion of the Board, the monitoring of domestic distribution is most important in preventing the use of that precursor in the illicit manufacture of methaqualone.

293. After the Board had provided them with information about the large-scale diversion of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine, Indian authorities introduced a pre-export authorization system for the export of ephedrine. The Board appreciates the cooperation of the Government of India in preventing the availability of that precursor for the clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine (see also paragraphs 109 and 110, above).

294. The number of treatment and rehabilitation facilities in South Asia has been increasing but it remains limited. The Board welcomes the initiative taken by the Ministry of Welfare of India in setting up an interministerial committee on the reduction of illicit drug demand.

3. West Asia

295. In 1995, Lebanon acceded to the 1971 Convention and Uzbekistan acceded to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention. Of the 24 States in West Asia, 18 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 17 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 15 are parties to the 1988 Convention. Georgia, Kazakstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Yemen are not parties to any of the international drug control treaties. The Board urges all States in the region that have not already done so to become parties to those treaties.

296. In 1995, the Board sent missions to the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kazakstan, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates (see paragraphs 327-342, below).

297. The Board notes with satisfaction the increasing cooperation between member States *Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)^{28 (see notes)} and also between them and UNDCP.

298. The Board highly appreciates the close cooperation in the field of drug control between Egypt, Israel and Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, as well as their cooperation with UNDCP, which was promoted during the meeting of an operational technical working group held at Cairo in July 1995.

299. The Board also appreciates the close subregional coordination between law enforcement agencies of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. **Member States are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.

300. The Board welcomes the drafting of a new comprehensive drug control strategy by the League of Arab States, extending the strategy of the previous Arab convention, which is oriented mainly towards law enforcement, to include social problems. The Board notes with satisfaction the ongoing coordination between law enforcement agencies of the Council of Arab Ministers of the Interior.

301. The Board welcomes the establishment of national interministerial coordinating committees on drug control in Armenia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan and encourages Governments of CIS member States in the region to speed up the adoption of new drug control laws with the assistance of UNDCP and to increase the cooperation between their national law enforcement agencies as provided by the agreement of police forces of CIS member States for the coordination of operational drug control activities, signed at Kiev in 1992.

302. The Board welcomes the initiatives undertaken by UNDCP for the establishment of drug control cooperation in central Asia and hopes that the programme to be submitted for signature to heads of State or Government of central Asian countries and the Executive Director of UNDCP at the political summit planned for early 1996 will constitute a major step towards closer cooperation between the signatories.

303. In the opinion of the Board, there is an urgent need to create appropriate legal frameworks and to strengthen law enforcement structures in CIS member States because the illicit cultivation of narcotic plants and the illicit production of, manufacture of, traffic in and abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances are on the increase and all of these problems are closely connected with the growing crime rate and in particular with the activities of criminal organizations. Similarly, there is an urgent need to regulate and control the system for the licit supply of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.

304. Heroin and opium are increasingly being transported across the territories of the five CIS member States in central Asia (Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), mainly from Afghanistan and Pakistan to countries in Europe. It is expected that such transit traffic will expand rapidly with the introduction of new international air and railway connections, the extension of the Karakorum highway and the restoration of the silk road, which is in the planning stage.

305. Some of the CIS member States are major manufacturers of chemicals that can be used for the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. The Board urges those States to take immediate measures against the diversion and illicit export of such chemicals, in particular acetic anhydride (see also paragraph 339, below).

306. In the opinion of the Board, special attention should be paid in CIS member States to the problem of money-laundering. The absence of mechanisms to control new financial institutions and banking activities and promising investment possibilities offer opportunities for persons who engage in money-laundering. In some CIS member States, hard-currency casinos, restaurants, shops and hotels also provide opportunities for such criminal activity.

307. The Board notes with satisfaction that the member States of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf have agreed to implement recommendations against money-laundering formulated by the Financial Action Task Force; however, the magnitude of the international movement of foreign exchange and promising investment opportunities frequently hinder the implementation of those recommendations (see also paragraph 336, below).

308. The Board hopes that the creation of a committee within the banking system for self-control and international cooperation and the forthcoming adoption of a new draft law containing provisions against money-laundering will enable the Government of Lebanon to improve its control of the large flow of foreign exchange and the fast-growing banking sector in that country.

309. Large-scale illicit cannabis cultivation and cannabis resin production have continued in Afghanistan. Afghanistan and Pakistan continue to be important suppliers of illicit drug markets in Europe. The large-scale illicit traffic in cannabis and cannabis resin continues to create problems for the transit countries in West Asia, as well as in Europe.

310. Wild-growing cannabis covers large areas in CIS member States. Cannabis grows wild not only on approximately 140,000 hectares in Kazakstan and 6,000 hectares in Kyrgyzstan,^{29 (see notes)} but also in the other CIS member States in central Asia (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) and in the CIS member States in the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia). The illicit cultivation of cannabis has also been reported in all of the CIS member States, but the controversial estimates do not allow a realistic assessment of the extent of that cultivation. There are contradictory reports regarding the potency of the cannabis varieties in central Asia. The Board recommends the countries concerned to clarify the THC content of wild-growing and cultivated cannabis varieties in the CIS member States in Asia.

311. The abuse of cannabis and cannabis resin continues to be substantial in Afghanistan and Pakistan and has increased in the CIS member States. Such abuse has been reported in most countries in West Asia.

312. Successful campaigns to eradicate illicit crop cultivation were conducted in the Beqa'a valley in Lebanon in 1991 and 1992.^{30 (see notes)} Since then, no cultivation of illicit crops has been observed there. But former cannabis and poppy growers still do not have an alternative source of income and such a situation leads to strong tension. To solve the problem, UNDCP and UNDP initiated an integrated area development programme. The Board invites Governments and development agencies to support ongoing UNDCP efforts aimed at preventing a re-emergence of the illicit cultivation of narcotic plants in Lebanon.

313. In Afghanistan, UNDCP has conducted a comprehensive survey on the extent of illicit poppy cultivation and opium production in crop year 1994/1995. The survey has confirmed the findings of the survey conducted in the crop year 1993/1994. Calculated illicit opium production is about 2,300 tonnes, about one third less than in crop year 1993/1994. The decrease is attributed to large-scale eradication, lower prices (because of oversupply in crop year 1993/1994) and increased cultivation costs. The effective border control and fight against drug trafficking by some of the neighbouring countries have also contributed to the reduction in production and prices. CIS member States are urged to similarly reinforce control of their borders with Afghanistan. Illicit opium production has only risen in the province of Badakhshan, mainly due to the emerging new trafficking through neighbouring CIS countries in central Asia. In Pakistan, according to the Government, the area under poppy cultivation and the amounts of opium produced have considerably diminished since the introduction of a ban on such activity in 1979, but illicit poppy cultivation has continued in tribal areas, where most federal laws are not enforced.

314. In the CIS member States in central Asia, Gorno-Badakhshan (in southern Tajikistan), Penjikent (at the Tajik-Kyrgyz border), Taldy-Kurgan and Kzyl-Orda (both in southern Kazakstan) and the Samarkand area (in Uzbekistan) are the major illicit opium production areas, and the opium poppy is cultivated in those areas on small plots. In 1994, 400 hectares of illicitly grown poppy were eradicated in Penjikent and operation "Mak" in northern Tajikistan resulted in the seizure of 200 tonnes of opium and cannabis resin and in the arrest of dozens of well-armed gangs. The Government of Uzbekistan has continued the annual "Black Poppy" operations, leading to the manual eradication of an average of 150 tonnes of opium poppy plants and 25 tonnes of cannabis plants per year. In the CIS member States in the Caucasus, opium poppy is cultivated mainly in Georgia, where 200,000 poppy plants and 500,000 cannabis plants were destroyed in 1994.

315. Illicit heroin manufacture has continued in West Asia. Large amounts of morphine and heroin base have been smuggled out of Afghanistan and Pakistan, particularly into Turkey, where clandestine laboratories for the manufacture of heroin hydrochloride have been dismantled in the eastern provinces and, increasingly, in the Istanbul area. According to ICPO/Interpol reports, some laboratories have also been detected in Lebanon. In Afghanistan, the number of clandestine heroin laboratories is on the increase. Many laboratories are located in the northern part of Afghanistan, in close proximity to its borders with Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, to facilitate the procurement of chemicals needed for illicit heroin manufacture. In Kazakstan, large amounts of acetic anhydride are manufactured and illicitly used, also in "kitchen laboratories", to manufacture heroin.

316. The abuse of heroin (mainly heroin smoking) continues to create enormous problems in Pakistan. Increasing heroin abuse has been reported in Afghanistan. Heroin abuse is also on the increase in Turkmenistan, where "brown sugar" (heroin base) smoking among young people is creating more problems than the old habit of eating opium among elderly people. Intravenous injection of opiates (opium infusions or poppy straw extracts) has been reported in Armenia, Georgia, Kazakstan and Uzbekistan.

317. In 1994, law enforcement authorities in Georgia detected the illicit cultivation of coca bush on an experimental basis in Adjaria, an area in the country with a subtropical climate, and in the mountains of Svatenia. According to local authorities, illicit traffickers have begun exploring the possibility of cultivating coca bush on a large scale in Georgia. In the opinion of the Board, it is important for the Government of Georgia to take measures to prevent coca bush from being cultivated on its territory and to initiate action against the attempts by international criminal organizations to introduce illicit coca bush cultivation in that country.

318. According to ICPO/Interpol reports, coca base is smuggled out of countries in South America into Lebanon, where it is converted in clandestine laboratories into cocaine hydrochloride and subsequently illegally exported, via Turkey, to other countries, mainly in Europe.

319. Cocaine abuse is not considered to be a problem in most countries in West Asia.

320. As for psychotropic substances, major problems are caused by stimulants: amphetamine and fenetylline in Arab countries and methcathinone in central Asia.

321. The smuggling of important quantities of illicitly manufactured fenetylline (Captagon) tablets out of European countries into States in the area of the Persian Gulf has continued. Analysis of seized samples has revealed that those tablets often contain amphetamine or caffeine instead of fenetylline. The abuse of amphetamine and (fake or real) fenetylline has been reported in Israel and Lebanon, as well as in States in the area of the Persian Gulf.

322. The large-scale illicit manufacture of, traffic in and abuse of methcathinone (ephedrone) have been increasing in CIS member States in central Asia. Methcathinone can be easily manufactured from ephedrine, which is extracted from the Ephedra plant. Ephedra grows abundantly in Kyrgyzstan, where 500 tonnes of it are harvested annually for the licit manufacture of ephedrine. In Kazakstan, approximately 2,000 tonnes of Ephedra may be harvested annually in the mountain ranges of the country. There are reports on clandestine laboratories manufacturing ephedrine, which is subsequently converted into methcathinone.

323. A sharp increase in the abuse of LSD has been reported in Israel, a development that is similar to that in several European countries.

324. The Board highly appreciates the demand reduction programmes of the Government of Israel, which include preventive programmes conducted in many schools, different treatment and rehabilitation possibilities, the active involvement of the media and special programmes for various ethnic and religious groups.

325. The Board also appreciates similar efforts in some other countries but deplores the lack of demand reduction activities in many countries in West Asia and invites the Governments of the States in the region to consider the undertaking of such preventive programmes a priority issue and to request the assistance of UNDCP, WHO and non-governmental organizations in that endeavour.

326. In June 1995, the Board sent a mission to the Islamic Republic of Iran to discuss all aspects of drug control in that country. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran is conducting a systematic fight against illicit drug trafficking. The Board is aware of the difficulties encountered by the national law enforcement authorities in preventing the smuggling of cannabis resin, opium, morphine and heroin into the country and in preventing its territory from being used to transport most drugs to Europe from its neighbouring countries. The Board appreciates the efforts of the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran in that direction and recommends that the Government should be provided with assistance in the form of equipment for law enforcement activities.

327. The Board recommends that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran should undertake an epidemiological study of the drug abuse situation in that country and should develop a nationwide demand reduction preventive programme.

328. The mission discussed with the Iranian authorities the possible consequences of any exports of codeine manufactured from seized opium. Such activity would be in conformity with the provisions of the international drug control treaties but would not be in line with the relevant Economic and Social Council resolutions. The mission reminded the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran of the adverse impact that such action would have on the balance between supply of and demand for opiates (see paragraphs 68-77, above).

329. A mission of the Board visited Pakistan in June 1995. The Board appreciates that the illicit poppy cultivation and opium production have been reduced in Pakistan, mainly in those districts where projects for integrated development are being implemented. The Board is concerned, however, about the extent of the illicit trafficking in and abuse of narcotic drugs in Pakistan. The Board is aware of the external and internal difficulties facing the country (the unstable situation in Afghanistan, the non-enforcement of federal law in tribal areas etc.) that hinder efforts by the Government to deal with the problem in a concerted manner.

330. The Board appreciates the law enforcement actions that have led to the seizure of substantial amounts of cannabis resin and opium. At the same time, the Board urges the Government of Pakistan to give the highest priority to implementing the federal narcotic laws and regulations in tribal areas where those laws and regulations are still not enforced and where there is substantial illicit cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking. The Board notes with concern that successful law enforcement action is often not followed by the punishment of traffickers and invites the Government to increase its action against the underlying factors (corruption, political influence of criminals etc.).

331. The Board trusts that the new administrative structure, the new control of narcotic substances ordinance of 1995, the increased regional and bilateral cooperation and the ongoing UNDCP assistance will allow the Government of Pakistan to effectively combat the drug problem.

332. The Board notes with particular concern the drug abuse situation in Pakistan but appreciates the increased awareness of that problem and encourages the Government to expand its demand reduction activities to include all of its aspects.

333. The Board recommends that the Government of Pakistan should strengthen its control of the licit trade in phenobarbital and other psychotropic substances as provided by the 1971 Convention, as well as the cooperation between national agencies in the control of precursors.

334. The Board urges the Government of Pakistan to pay more attention to money-laundering activities, which are often facilitated by liberal financial regulations and policies.

335. In June 1995, the Board sent a mission to the United Arab Emirates. The Board had been alerted to the fact that the country had been used to divert substances used for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in Mexico and for the conversion of morphine into heroin in West Asia (see paragraph 129-132, above). The mission of the Board therefore discussed with the Government of the United Arab Emirates measures necessary for the implementation of article 12 of the 1988 Convention and recommended that the Government should ensure the implementation of those measures by all of the national authorities involved in precursor control, particularly by the customs services. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government has already started to implement measures to prevent a reoccurrence of incidents involving diversion.

336. In the United Arab Emirates promising investment opportunities and the lack of adequate legislation offer possibilities for persons who engage in money-laundering. The Board welcomes the drafting of the first law to include measures against money-laundering and to provide for the confiscation of assets derived from drug trafficking activities. The Board urges the Government of the United Arab Emirates to adopt and implement that law as soon as possible.

337. In September 1995, the Board sent a mission to Kazakstan to invite the Government to ratify the three main international drug control treaties, since Kazakstan is not a party to any of them.

338. Accession to the 1961 Convention and the implementation of the provisions of that Convention are a matter of priority because Kazakstan is the only CIS member State that is a manufacturer of morphine, codeine and other natural and semi-synthetic opiates and it is an important supplier of those alkaloids to other CIS member States. There had been some indications that opiates manufactured in the pharmaceutical plant at Chimkent had been diverted. Vast areas of Kazakstan are covered with wild-growing cannabis. There are reports on the illicit cultivation of opium poppy and on the increasing abuse of opiates (mainly extracts prepared in "kitchen laboratories").

339. Ratification of the 1988 Convention and the implementation of its provisions are of crucial importance because there is evidence that the territory of Kazakstan is increasingly being used as a transit point by international drug traffickers. Kazakstan is a major manufacturer of acetic anhydride and there are reports that that chemical is being smuggled out of the country into clandestine heroin laboratories in Afghanistan.

340. There is an urgent need for strict controls over the precursors and chemicals in Tables I and II of the 1988 Convention. Wild-growing Ephedra plants constitute a potential source for illicit ephedrine manufacture. In addition, ephedrine is a precursor of methcathinone (called ephedrone in CIS member States) and there is evidence that the clandestine manufacture and the abuse of that substance (which is under the control regime of the 1971 Convention) constitute problems in Kazakstan. Without the application of the provisions of the 1988 Convention it would be very difficult to prevent the illicit manufacture and abuse of methcathinone.

341. The Board is confident that the Government of Kazakstan will speed up the adoption of adequate drug control legislation, making use of the assistance provided by UNDCP. The Board appreciates the recently introduced national coordination mechanism and encourages the Government of Kazakstan to develop the administrative structures that are necessary for the establishment of a functional national drug control system. The Board invites international organizations to assist the Government in its efforts.

D. Europe

342. Since the last report of the Board was published, Belgium has acceded to the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention, Norway has acceded to the 1988 Convention and the Republic of Moldova has acceded to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention. Only a few States in Europe are not parties to the three main international drug control treaties.

343. Since its last report the Board has sent missions to Bulgaria, Switzerland and Ukraine (see paragraphs 379-389, below).

344. The Board appreciates that the European Union has concluded bilateral agreements with a great number of States and intergovernmental organizations in order to increase cooperation in activities aimed at countering money-laundering, the diversion of precursors and other chemicals, and illicit drug manufacture and trafficking. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, established at Lisbon by the European Council in 1994,^{31 (see notes)} will be operational in 1995. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Centre intends to cooperate with the United Nations.

345. The Board appreciates that the Agreement on Illicit Traffic by Sea, Implementing Article 17 of the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, was concluded by the States members of the Council of Europe and was opened for signature at Strasbourg in January 1995.

346. The Board regrets that, despite the growing concern over drug-related problems, no comprehensive drug legislation has been enacted in any of the formerly socialist countries in eastern Europe. In several countries, such legislation has been drafted and has even been proposed to Governments and parliaments, but has not yet been adopted. The Board urges the Governments and parliaments of those countries to accelerate the adoption of new drug legislation, including legislation that takes into account the provisions of the 1988 Convention.

347. The Board welcomes the establishment of close contacts between UNDCP and the inter-parliamentary assembly of member States of CIS with a view to providing technical assistance to parliaments of States in the process of adopting new drug control legislation.

348. A governmental commission to combat drug abuse and illicit trafficking was set up in the Russian Federation, and an interministerial drug coordination body was created in Estonia in 1994. Lithuania established a national narcotics control committee in 1995; the highest priority of the committee is the redrafting of legislation to ensure compliance with the provisions of the 1988 Convention and subsequently the accession of Lithuania to that Convention.

349. Following the ratification of the three international drug control treaties, a standing committee on drug control was established in the Republic of Moldova in 1995.

350. The Board notes recent initiatives taken by the Government of the Netherlands in an effort to bring its drug policy more in line with the international drug control treaties. It notes with satisfaction that the Government and the parliament of the Netherlands are taking into consideration, during their discussions, the provisions of the international drug control treaties, the impact of their decisions on the drug control policy of other States and on the illicit traffic situation and the views expressed in the report of the Board for 1993.^{32 (see notes)} At the same time, however, the Board expresses its continued concern at the persistence of certain practices, only slightly altered, which call into question the Government of the Netherlands' fidelity to its treaty obligations. This includes continuing the failed policy of "separation of markets", ^{33 (see notes)} tolerating the continued cultivation of nederwiet provided that it is of lower THC content, permitting the operation of so-called coffee shops, many of which have fallen under the control of criminal elements, and continuing to stockpile narcotic drugs for non-medical purposes. The Board will continue to observe closely the progress made by the Government of the Netherlands in fulfilling its treaty obligations.

351. The Government of the United Kingdom launched a tough new drive against drug abuse in 1995 in a white paper entitled "Tackling drugs together", combining vigorous law enforcement, drug prevention in schools, action in communities and initiatives in prisons. The Government also set up a toll-free confidential national drug help-line, which provides information and advice about drugs and inhalants 24 hours a day. The Board appreciates the firm stand of the Government of the United Kingdom against the legalization of the non-medical use of drugs.

352. The incidence of crimes connected with illicit drug trafficking is increasing in Europe, in particular in the central and eastern parts of the region. Drug-related problems in eastern Europe are closely connected with the overall rise in criminality in the formerly socialist countries, which are suffering from major economic and social problems. The increasing use of the territories of central and eastern European countries as transit routes for narcotic drugs is a factor contributing to the increase in drug-related crimes and to the propagation of local drug abuse.

353. The adverse impact of the activities of criminal organizations on the political, economic and social stability has been strongest in CIS member States, where the interdiction capability of law enforcement services has been limited, the justice system has been slow, corruption has hindered the proper functioning of administrations, and democratic institutions have been fragile. Illicit drug trafficking is often facilitated by a lack of border controls. The relations between individual trafficking groups have grown and with the assistance of some nationals of CIS member States who have recently settled in Austria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland and other countries have succeeded in establishing international links.

354. The Board welcomes the UNDCP assistance programmes focusing on the prevention of drug-related crime in CIS member States, which are being undertaken in cooperation with the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of the Secretariat.

355. There are close links between drug trafficking and money-laundering in the Russian Federation. Money-laundering in that country, which is not a criminal offence under current national legislation, is frequently conducted through private businesses, insurance companies, financial institutions, exchange offices and real estate agencies and through newly privatized factories, companies, hotels etc.

356. The ongoing privatization of State-owned properties and weaknesses in the supervision of the increasing number of financial institutions provide plenty of opportunities for criminals to engage in money-laundering in formerly socialist countries in Europe. The Board welcomes the adoption of a law against money-laundering in Hungary and urges other States to follow that example as soon as possible.

357. The Board appreciates the efforts of the European Commission aimed at the implementation of the provisions of its directives against money-laundering and congratulates the authorities of France, Germany, Italy and other European countries who have conducted successful operations against money-laundering, leading to the arrest of important cocaine and heroin traffickers.

358. In Sweden, the experimental abuse of drugs among 16-year-old pupils has decreased from about 14 per cent to about 5 per cent in the past 20 years. In 1980, 19 per cent of 18-year-old males signing on for military service had tried drugs; that proportion diminished to 9 per cent in 1994. In 1979, 37 per cent of severe drug abusers were under 25 years old, compared with only 10 per cent in 1992. The Board appreciates the accomplishment of the Government of Sweden, which can be considered to be the result of its clearly defined and constantly followed policy, based on maintaining a balance between demand reduction and supply reduction, achieving political consensus and on striving for the participation of the entire society.

359. The Board also appreciates the assistance provided by UNDCP, the European Union and the Pompidou Group to central and eastern European countries in demand reduction.

360. The Netherlands has become a significant producer of cannabis cultivated indoors. In 1994, about 500,000 such plants were seized by law enforcement authorities in that country. According to ICPO/Interpol, the THC content of cannabis in the Netherlands ranges from 9 per cent to 22 per cent. Seeds are exported to countries in western and eastern Europe, where they are used for the indoor cultivation of highly potent cannabis. In the opinion of the Board, the export of such seeds for illicit cultivation purposes is against the provisions of the 1961 Convention and the 1988 Convention and is contrary to the regulations of the European Commission and the Council of the European Union.^{34 (see notes)} The export of technical expertise from the Netherlands to other countries plays an important role in the propagation of illicit indoor cannabis cultivation in Europe.

361. Cannabis grows wild and is illicitly cultivated in the CIS member States in Europe (Belarus, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine) and illicit cannabis cultivation has been reported in eastern Europe.

362. Although there have been no major changes in the situation in Europe with regard to the illicit traffic in cannabis and cannabis resin, cannabis seizures increased substantially, from 440 tonnes to 783 tonnes, between 1993 and 1994. The main supplier States continue to be in Africa (Morocco and Nigeria), Central America and the Caribbean (Jamaica), South America (Colombia) and West Asia (Afghanistan and Pakistan).

363. Cannabis remains the main drug of abuse in Europe. An increase in cannabis abuse has been reported mainly in the eastern part of the region.

364. In Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, despite a ban on all poppy cultivation, illicit poppy cultivation continues. The Board notes with concern that in the Republic of Moldova, the cultivation of poppy is not yet regulated. In other central and eastern European countries, poppy cultivation for the production of seeds is permitted, but opium production, traffic in poppy straw and the use of poppy straw for the preparation of abusable extracts are punishable offences. There is considerable illicit traffic in poppy straw in CIS member States and in the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). In 1994, an opium processing laboratory was dismantled in Lithuania.

365. In 1994, 10 tonnes of heroin were seized in Europe; 80 per cent of it was estimated to have originated in south-west Asia and most of it had been transported along the Balkan route. The armed conflict in former republics of Yugoslavia has disrupted the traditional Balkan route and, as a result, the routes used by international traffickers have become more diverse. The territories of CIS member States are increasingly being used as transit points by traffickers of heroin and cannabis resin. In addition to Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Romania have become more important as transit countries. Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia are frequently used as transshipment points. South-east Asian heroin is smuggled by sea through Vladivostok and by land in transport international routier (TIR) trucks through Mongolia and the Russian Federation. Rail containers originating in the CIS member States in central Asia, countries in south-west Asia, Turkey and the countries in the Caucasus are increasingly being used for smuggling heroin into western Europe through the Russian Federation.

366. Most of the heroin smuggled into Europe is abused in countries in the western part of the region, but there are signs that heroin abuse is also emerging in some countries in central and eastern Europe. The abuse of poppy straw extracts remains a major problem in CIS member States and in the Baltic States, where the abuse of synthetic opioids has also become a problem (see paragraph 367, below). In Poland, there has been a decline in the abuse of poppy straw extracts, accompanied by an increase in amphetamine abuse. A similar shift from opiates to amphetamine had been observed earlier in other countries in the region.^{35 (see notes)}

367. In the opinion of the Board, the dismantling of a growing number of clandestine laboratories engaged in the manufacture of synthetic opioids, mainly 3-methylfentanyl, in the Russian Federation and the propagation of the abuse of such synthetic drugs in that country and in neighbouring countries, above all in the Baltic States, constitute a major threat to the entire European region. The synthetic opioid 3-methylfentanyl is several hundred times more potent than heroin and can be easily synthesized. Considering the fact that the existing manufacturing capacity in the Russian Federation, other CIS member States, the Baltic States and other central and eastern European countries is no longer fully used for legal industrial purposes, there is a real risk that 3-methylfentanyl and other synthetic opioids will appear on illicit markets in western European countries.

368. Cocaine seizures increased significantly in Europe. Central and eastern European countries are increasingly being used by South American cartels as transit States for cocaine destined for illicit markets in western Europe. Increasing seizures indicate that Poland has become an important transit point for cocaine traffickers. Cocaine is smuggled into Europe through the Russian Federation and Ukraine and through several countries in south-eastern Europe. Despite the emergence of new trafficking routes, the Iberian peninsula continues to be the most important point of entry into Europe for cocaine from South America; however, France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom are also making seizures of that drug in increasing amounts. Nationals of countries in western Africa continue to be used as couriers to smuggle cocaine out of South America and into Europe via airports in western Africa.

369. The abuse of cocaine is on the increase in Europe, mainly in the western part of the continent, but there are signs that such abuse is also spreading in some countries in eastern Europe. In 1994, crack was involved in 50 per cent of the cocaine seizures in the United Kingdom. Crack continues to be a matter of concern to authorities in that country, especially considering the violent criminality associated with its abuse.

370. Problems connected with the abuse of psychotropic substances are increasing in the European region. In the opinion of the Board, the abuse of synthetic stimulants (amphetamine, methamphetamine and methcathinone) and hallucinogens ("ecstasy"-type hallucinogenic amphetamines and LSD) merits special attention.

371. Amphetamine is widely available in most countries in Europe; large quantities of amphetamine originating mainly in the Netherlands but also in Poland have been seized in several countries in western Europe and in the Nordic States. In Poland, four large-scale clandestine amphetamine laboratories were dismantled in 1994 and two more were dismantled in the first half of 1995. There are signs that illicit amphetamine and methamphetamine manufacture is taking place, on a smaller scale, in several other European countries. The black market for metamphetamine in the Czech Republic is supplied by a large number of small, clandestine "home laboratories": in 1994, 70 such laboratories were seized by the authorities.

372. Increasing amphetamine abuse has been reported from a number of countries but, in some cases, no distinction has been made between amphetamine and hallucinogenic amphetamine-derivatives (MDMA etc.) in seizure reports or drug abuse statistics.

373. Considerable increases in cases involving the seizure or abuse of MDMA and similar hallucinogenic amphetamines have been reported in France, Italy, Spain and some other countries. In Spain, in the first three months of 1995, more than 200,000 units of such drugs were seized, nearly twice the figure for the entire year in 1994. In 1994, the largest ever MDMA laboratory was seized at Amsterdam. The Netherlands remains the major supplier of hallucinogenic amphetamines, but substantial amounts of such drugs originate in eastern European countries. There are signs that the manufacture of synthetic drugs has continued in the Baltic States, where control and detection of illicit drug manufacture and trafficking are hindered by the large number of chemical and pharmaceutical companies.

374. LSD abuse is growing in Spain and the United Kingdom, and several countries in central and eastern Europe (Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovenia) have reported increased trafficking in and abuse of LSD, to the extent that LSD has become one of the most abused drugs in the Czech Republic and Slovenia. Most of the LSD found in Europe originates in the United States.

375. Growing abuse of hallucinogenic mushrooms has been reported in Estonia and in the Russian Federation, where control measures have been introduced for the prevention of that form of abuse. The Board invites Governments and regional and international organizations to monitor the new trends in the abuse of hallucinogens.

376. The Board highly appreciates the cooperation of Governments in the control of ephedrine shipments, which has led to prevention of the diversion of substantial amounts of that compound (see paragraphs 127-144, above).

377. The smuggling of large quantities of khat (Catha edulis) into Europe is creating problems for the authorities of several countries. Khat is not under international control but its use is considered to be a form of abuse in several European countries where preventive measures have been taken against its import.

378. The Board sent a mission to Bulgaria in October 1995 to assess the action undertaken by the Government of Bulgaria pursuant to the recommendations made by the Board during its mission in April 1993.^{36 (see notes)} The Board appreciates the initial steps undertaken by the Government of Bulgaria in establishing an interministerial drug control committee, introducing control mechanisms for precursors and other chemicals and reinforcing some law enforcement services. The Board has noted that the Government of Bulgaria is elaborating a special law to counter money-laundering.

379. The Board urges the Government of Bulgaria to ratify the 1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention, to adopt comprehensive drug control legislation, to undertake steps for the destruction of seized drugs and to improve the functioning of its criminal justice system in the prosecution of drug-related criminal cases.

380. In February 1995, the Board sent a mission to Switzerland to follow up its mission to that country in February 1994.^{37 (see notes)} Such missions are an integral part of the continuing dialogue of the Board with the Government of Switzerland on two extremely important issues: the accession of Switzerland to the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention; and the drug control policy of that country, including the ongoing heroin project.

381. Switzerland is still not a party to the 1971 Convention, but since the return of the mission the Board has been assured by the Government that all of the legislative and administrative arrangements are in place for the ratification and implementation of that Convention in 1996. The Board understands that that implementation will include the application of the export-import authorization system in accordance with the relevant Economic and Social Council resolutions, which could serve as an example for some other countries that are also major manufacturers and exporters of psychotropic substances.

382. In the past, the territory of Switzerland was frequently used for the diversion of precursors of psychotropic substances (ephedrine, in particular). The Board regrets that Switzerland is not yet prepared to ratify the 1988 Convention, but it appreciates the active cooperation of the Swiss authorities in the prevention and detection of cases involving such diversion cases and it is confident that the new regulation of precursor control and the new law on money-laundering which are expected to be adopted in 1995, will strengthen the international control system.

383. Until recently, there were a number of open drug scenes in various cities in Switzerland, including one in Zurich that was frequented by about 3,000 drug abusers (and dealers) each day in peak times, by up to 8,000. According to the Swiss authorities, all those sites have been closed. In addition to the increasing drug abuse problem, Switzerland had experienced the rapid spread of HIV infection (until recently, the country had the highest HIV infection rate among European countries). The Board appreciates that the Swiss Government has acknowledged that, due to that policy, the drug problem has reached a level where it has become uncontrollable.

384. In the opinion of the Swiss authorities, the project on the prescription of heroin to drug addicts should be considered one element of their efforts to find solutions to the country's drug problems. Simultaneously with that controversial experiment, the Government of Switzerland has undertaken concrete steps towards the improvement of prevention, therapy, repression and rehabilitation (which are considered to be the four pillars of its national policy). In the therapeutic field, for example, existing facilities for long-term clinical treatment, which can currently accommodate 1,500 persons, will be increased by 380 additional places, and about 13,000-15,000 drug dependent persons are currently receiving methadone substitution therapy. The aim of the heroin project is to explore new possibilities for the treatment of heavily addicted persons for whom other forms of treatment have failed.

385. The Board reiterates its concerns in respect of the experiments with heroin for maintenance purposes;^{37 (see notes)} however, it welcomes the prompt compliance of the Government of Switzerland with the Board's recommendation to invite WHO to conduct an independent assessment of the medical and scientific aspects of the project. The Board also appreciates the willingness of WHO to undertake that assessment and it hopes that the findings of WHO will be made available in the near future.

386. In September 1995, the Board sent a mission to Ukraine. The Board is aware of the difficulties encountered by the drug control and law enforcement services of the country, where criminality, including drug-related criminality, and drug abuse are on the increase. The Board appreciates the commitment of the Government of Ukraine to meet its obligations under the international drug control treaties; however, it urges the Government to speed up the development of a comprehensive national drug control policy.

387. The Board welcomes the initial steps taken by the Government of Ukraine towards the introduction of updated drug control legislation and a mechanism for interministerial coordination. The adoption in 1995 of legislative measures enabling authorities to identify money-laundering transactions, to prosecute persons involved in such activities and to confiscate assets derived from drug trafficking is considered by the Board to be an encouraging sign.

388. The Board recommends that the Government of Ukraine should provide more resources for the strengthening of its national drug control system. The Board appreciates the respective assistance provided by UNDCP and encourages international organizations to continue to provide training and equipment to assist Ukraine in its efforts to improve its drug control and law enforcement capability.

E. Oceania

389. Of the 14 States in Oceania, only 8 are parties to the 1961 Convention and the same countries are parties to the 1971 Convention. Only Australia and Fiji are parties to the 1988 Convention and six States in the region are not parties to any of the international drug control treaties. The Board urges all States in the region that have not already done to accede to those treaties.

390. In 1995, the Board sent a mission to Papua New Guinea (see paragraphs 403-404, below).

391. With the exception of a few countries (for example, Papua New Guinea), illicit drug production, trafficking and abuse do not constitute major problems in the Pacific island countries. However, there is evidence that illicit traffickers are increasingly using the territories of those countries as transit points. Their tasks are often facilitated by the fact that in most countries drug control legislation is outdated (or even non-existent) and the financial, technical and human resources of many poor islands are too limited to deal with increasing drug trafficking.

392. The Board highly appreciates the assistance provided to countries in the region by the Governments of Australia and New Zealand and UNDCP in the revision and updating of their drug control legislation and in the training of professionals.

393. The Board appreciates the efforts of the Government of Australia to ensure a balance between law enforcement and demand reduction activities under its comprehensive drug strategy.

394. Australia had enacted already in 1987 effective legislation against money-laundering. In New Zealand a law has been recently adopted enabling the forfeiture of assets derived from criminal activities. The Board welcomes the drafting of legislation on countermeasures against money-laundering in New Zealand and hopes that the adoption of such a law will allow the Government of that country to accede to the 1988 Convention and to implement its provisions. The Board appreciates the efforts of the South Pacific Forum in assisting national authorities in the subregion in drafting legislation against money-laundering and in the training of agency personnel in the execution of countermeasures because the current situation (lack of legislation and controls) offers plenty of opportunities for persons who engage in money-laundering.

395. Cannabis grows wild in several countries in Oceania and is also illicitly cultivated in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Samoa. Cannabis originating in Papua New Guinea has been frequently seized in Australia.

396. There are reports of cannabis abuse in several countries in the region. In Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea, cannabis remains the most popular drug of abuse.

397. The licit cultivation of poppy is properly regulated and controlled in Australia. Some cases of illicit poppy cultivation have been reported in New Zealand.

398. Heroin abuse continues in Australia and there are also cases of heroin abuse in New Zealand, where in many cases, codeine or morphine is extracted from pharmaceutical preparations and converted into heroin by drug abusers.

399. There are only sporadic reports on cocaine abuse in Oceania.

400. Illicit manufacture and abuse of methamphetamine as well as hallucinogenic amphetamines, particularly MDMA, continue to constitute major problems in