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III. ANALYSIS OF THE WORLD SITUATION 160. The cultivation of, illicit traffic in and abuse of cannabis are widespread in Africa. According to available seizure data, Morocco remains the major supplier of cannabis resin in illicit markets of Europe. Africa is being used for the trans-shipment of large amounts of Asian heroin and South American cocaine. There are signs of the propagation of local abuse of those narcotic drugs in some big cities; the abuse of crack is already creating problems in South Africa and in several countries in western Africa. The abuse of stimulants continues in many countries in the region. The abuse of methaqualone is more prevalent in southern and eastern Africa than in other parts of the continent. Despite the efforts of the Government of India, illicit methaqualone shipments still arrive from India in Africa, but seizures of precursors might be regarded as a sign of local methaqualone manufacturing. Substantial amounts of benzodiazepines find their way, mainly from Asia and Europe, to illicit markets in Africa. 161. Since the last report of the Board was published, the Gambia has become a party to the 1961 Convention, the Gambia and Sao Tome and Principe have acceded to the 1971 Convention and Botswana, Gambia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Malawi, Sao Tome and Principe and United Republic of Tanzania have become parties to the 1988 Convention. Of the 53 States in Africa, 43 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 41 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 36 are parties to the 1988 Convention. 162. The Board urges the Governments of Angola, Central African Republic, Comoros, Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Mozambique and Namibia, which are not parties to any of the three main international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties. 163. The Board appreciates the adoption of a plan of action for drug control in Africa by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in July 1996, as well as the ratification in August 1996 of the protocol for drug control (adopted in 1995) by the 12 member States of the Southern African Development Community. The Board notes with satisfaction the commitment of African regional and subregional organizations to increase their cooperation and activities in the field of drug control and invites the international community to support this regional cooperation. 164. In April 1996, the secretariat of the Board participated in a seminar for trainers of pharmacy inspectors organized by UNDCP in Côte d'Ivoire. The training seminar was part of a capacity- building project in western Africa. The Board appreciates the interest of the Governments of the 16 participating countries from that subregion because control over the distribution of drugs for medical purposes is generally weak. 4. National legislation, policy and action 165. There are only a few African countries that have made progress in the updating of their drug control laws. The Board urges countries that have received intensive legal assistance from UNDCP for many years to speed up the process of the adoption of adequate drug control legislation and invites OAU to assist those countries in the fulfilment of that task. 166. The Board welcomes the creation of interministerial committees in a number of countries in central, eastern and western Africa and urges the Governments of those countries to ensure the proper functioning of those committees. 167. There are few countries in Africa where national drug control strategies exist. The Board appreciates the fact that Burkina Faso, Egypt, Namibia and Nigeria have formulated such strategies and invites the other African countries to follow their example. 168. The Board notes with satisfaction the creation in December 1995 of an anti-drug commission in Morocco called Unité de coordination de la lutte antidrogue and appreciates the undertaking in January 1996 of Operation Mains Propres that led to the arrest and prosecution of several well-known drug traffickers. 5. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (a) Narcotic drugs 169. Cannabis grows wild and is illicitly cultivated in many African countries. Large-scale illicit cannabis cultivation and trafficking continue in Morocco, but there have been reports of such activity in many parts of Africa. The extent of illicit cannabis cultivation in South Africa was estimated to be 82,000 hectares in 1995. The destruction of some illicit cannabis fields has been reported in several countries in the region. 170. In 1995, 110 tonnes of cannabis resin were seized by the national authorities in Morocco. In January 1996, a seizure of 36 tonnes of cannabis resin of Moroccan origin was made in Spain. Eastern and southern African seaports are frequently used for the trans-shipment of cannabis resin originating mainly in Asia and destined for Europe or North America. 171. Widespread cannabis abuse has been reported in every subregion of the continent. 172. African countries continue to be used as transit States for large-scale illicit trafficking in heroin. Heroin is transported from south-west and south-east Asia to African seaports and airports and further to Europe and North America, contributing to the spread of heroin abuse in a few capital cities in Africa. Heroin abuse is already considered a serious problem by national authorities in Mauritius, Namibia and South Africa. 173. In Egypt, increasing illicit cannabis and poppy cultivation was reported in the Sinai, but successful eradication campaigns have been carried out by national authorities. 174. Increasing amounts of cocaine are being smuggled out of South America (mainly Brazil), through eastern, southern and western Africa and into Europe. It is estimated that 60 per cent of the cocaine shipped to South Africa passes through that country and that the rest is consumed locally. Crack is manufactured locally in South Africa and in some countries in western Africa; its abuse is on the rise. (b) Psychotropic substances 175. The illicit traffic in and abuse of methaqualone continue in eastern and southern Africa. Methaqualone of Indian origin is smuggled in bulk or in tablet form into Africa. In 1995, a methaqualone laboratory was dismantled in Mozambique and controlled delivery of chemicals from Germany led to the seizure of a laboratory in South Africa. Attempted diversion and seizure of precursors for methaqualone (N-acetylanthranilic acid, anthranilic acid and o-toluidine in Kenya and South Africa) were also reported. 176. Large-scale illicit trafficking in and abuse of stimulants appear to continue in Africa. The lack of proper control over the pharmaceutical supply system and the existence of street markets facilitate the free availability of stimulant tablets. Amphetamine-type stimulants are the most frequently abused stimulants, but the popularity of ephedrine tablets is on the rise. In western Africa, ephedrine, imported in bulk, is usually used for the manufacture of ephedrine tablets and not for the clandestine manufacture of amphetamines. The quantities of ephedrine imported by some African States seem very large compared with the quantities imported by other States. The Board invites the public health authorities of those States to evaluate, with the assistance of WHO, their real medical needs for ephedrine. The clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine has been reported in Egypt. 177. There have been frequent reports on the abuse of sedatives in central, eastern, southern and western Africa. Diazepam, flunitrazepam and secobarbital are frequently mentioned in those reports. More than 20 million chlordiazepoxide and diazepam tablets were seized in the first half of 1996 in Nigeria. 178. In March 1996, the Board sent a mission to Malawi. Although Malawi is a party to the three international drug control treaties, its national legislation is not yet in harmony with them. The Board recommends to the Government the development and adoption of new drug control legislation, based on the model offered by UNDCP. 179. The Board is aware of the great economic and other difficulties of Malawi, including the lack of resources. It would nevertheless appreciate efforts by the Government to strengthen the national drug control administration and its law enforcement services. The Board recommends the Government to request assistance from the international community for training and equipment. 180. In March 1996, a mission of the Board visited Zambia. One of its objectives was the assessment of the progress made since the last mission of the Board in the implementation of the provisions of the three international drug control treaties, to which Zambia is a party, including its reporting obligations.(35) The Board reiterates its recommendation to the Government to accede to the 1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention. 181. In the opinion of the Board, the Government of Zambia should update its regulations for the control of legal trade in psychotropic substances, including the list of substances under control. The Board recommends the introduction of a system of import and export authorizations for substances in Schedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention. The Government of Zambia should also adopt legislation on precursor control and money-laundering. 1. Central America and the Caribbean (a) Major drug problems 182. Countries both in Central America and in the Caribbean suffer from the increasing transit traffic in illicit drugs. Cannabis, cocaine and heroin are transported from South America to North America through Central American countries; the territories of the Caribbean States are used as trans-shipment points for cannabis and cocaine consignments from South America destined for Europe. The same countries are also used to trans-ship chemicals originating mainly in Europe or the United States to clandestine cocaine laboratories in South America or to smuggle methamphetamine precursors out of Asia and Europe and into Mexico or the United States. Illicit traffickers often benefit from the relatively weak drug control structures in many countries in the region and the lack of experience in monitoring chemicals. 183. Increasing drug-related crime, corruption, drug abuse and money-laundering are the side effects and consequences of the large-scale illicit drug trafficking. (b) Treaty adherence 184. Since the last report of the Board was published, Belize, Cuba and Jamaica have become parties to the 1988 Convention. Of the 22 States in Central America and the Caribbean, 18 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 16 are parties to the 1971 Convention and all are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges the Governments of Belize, El Salvador, Grenada and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to accede to the 1961 Convention and the Governments of Belize, El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to become parties to the 1971 Convention. (c) Regional cooperation(36) 185. The Board welcomes the memorandum of understanding signed in May 1996 by the Governments of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama on the harmonized development of their national legislations on money-laundering, precursor control and other drug-related matters. The Board urges the signatory Governments to fulfil their obligations as soon as possible. The Board has drawn the attention of Governments in Central America and the Caribbean to the necessity of preventive action against money-laundering.(37) While the Board appreciates the increasing cooperation between Caribbean countries within the framework of the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force, it reiterates its appeal to Governments to adopt legislation against money-laundering. 186. The Board hopes that the adoption in May 1996 of the Barbados plan of action, which is aimed at the harmonization of national programmes in individual Caribbean countries, will lead to the development of appropriate mechanisms for the coordination of national policies and strategies and to increased cooperation in legal matters, as well as in law enforcement action. 187. The Board urges Governments in Central America and the Caribbean to increase their bilateral and multilateral drug law enforcement efforts. The usefulness of such cooperation has been demonstrated by the large cocaine seizures resulting from joint operations involving Belize and Mexico. 188. The Board hopes that the six States that developed a new Central American convention against money-laundering (Convenio Centroamericano para la Prevención y la Represión de los Delitos de Lavado de Dinero, Activos y Delitos Conexos), namely Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama, will ratify and implement that convention as soon as possible. (d) National legislation, policy and action 189. There are signs that territories of countries both in Central America and in the Caribbean are used by illicit traffickers for the trans-shipment of precursors and chemicals needed in illicit drug manufacture from Asia, Europe or the United States to South America. Since it was detected that large quantities of ephedrine were being smuggled out of Asia and Europe, through Guatemala and into Mexico and the United States for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine,(38) attempts to trans-ship ephedrine and pseudoephedrine through other Central American countries have been reported. The Board welcomes the introduction of administrative measures for the monitoring of those precursors and other chemicals in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. The Board urges the other countries in Central America and the Caribbean to follow that example and to introduce or strengthen the control of such chemicals, inter alia, by adopting the necessary legislation. 190. The Board takes note with appreciation of the creation in Honduras of an investigative unit within the civil police that is specialized in dealing with financial crime. The Board urges the Government to further improve its capacity to fight money-laundering by speeding up the adoption by Congress of the legislation against money-laundering that was submitted to it in 1995. 191. The Board invites the Government of Belize to proceed with the development of national laws needed for the implementation of provisions of the 1988 Convention, which has recently been ratified by Belize. 192. The Board welcomes the recent release of the results of a survey conducted in Belize on the extent of drug abuse among young people. More than 15,000 students were surveyed. Crack abuse was noted even among children in primary schools. The very young age at which crack is being abused is a signal to national bodies in the region warning them that it is time for intervention. (e) Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (i) Narcotic drugs 193. Cannabis continues to be cultivated in varying degrees for domestic abuse in most countries in Central America and the Caribbean. Eradication is regularly carried out in most Central American countries. In the Caribbean, 13 million cannabis plants, covering more than 1,000 hectares, were destroyed and 127 tonnes of cannabis were seized in 1995. Cannabis continues to be smuggled out of the Caribbean countries, mainly Jamaica and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. 194. Illicit opium poppy cultivation and the eradication of opium poppy cultivation sites were reported only in Guatemala. Despite the increasing illicit traffic in heroin through the region, there have been no signs of heroin abuse. 195. Small-scale illicit cultivation of coca bush has been reported only in Panama, where efforts to eradicate such cultivation are regularly made. 196. The large-scale illicit traffic in cocaine remains the biggest drug problem in the region. Most of the cocaine is transported across Central America and the Caribbean, but increasing domestic cocaine abuse has been reported in most countries; after cannabis, cocaine is the most frequently abused drug. In the Caribbean, laboratories engaged in the transformation of coca base or coca paste into crack have been detected in several countries. (ii) Psychotropic substances 197. The abuse of psychotropic substances is not considered a major problem in most countries in Central America and the Caribbean. However, the Board continues to urge Governments in the region to introduce controls to regulate the pharmaceutical supply system because in most countries in the region pharmaceutical products containing psychotropic substances are not always prescribed, dispensed and distributed in conformity with the provisions of the 1971 Convention.(39) Such situations are usually contributing factors to the propagation of abuse. (f) Mission 198. A mission of the Board visited El Salvador in September 1996. The Board urges the Government of El Salvador to accede to the 1961 Convention and to the 1971 Convention, to develop and adopt a comprehensive legislation for drug control in conformity with the provisions of those conventions and the 1988 Convention and to improve the coordination of the drug-related activities of ministries and other national bodies. 199. The Board appreciates recent positive developments in El Salvador such as the adoption of a penal code, the well-advanced revision of a number of laws and the strengthening of the national civil police. The Board notes with satisfaction that prescription obligation for the dispensing of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances was introduced in the country in 1995 as a first step towards the adequate regulation of the licit trade in those drugs. 200. The Board appreciates the introduction of a nationwide educational programme for drug prevention in schools in El Salvador and invites countries in the region without such programmes for reducing illicit drug demand to follow that example. (a) Major drug problems 201. The extent of drug abuse is different in each of the three countries in North America: the prevalence of drug abuse cases is lowest in Mexico and highest in the United States. The biggest illicit drug market in the world is in the United States. Efforts to reduce illicit drug demand and supply and the comprehensive drug strategy led to positive results in the 1980s and early 1990s; however, recently the incidence of abuse of cocaine, cannabis and hallucinogens among youth in that country has been increasing. Illicit manufacture of amphetamine derivatives and increasing indoor cannabis cultivation are affecting the United States and Canada. In Mexico, the illicit cultivation of cannabis, the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine and the illicit transit traffic in cocaine and other drugs are problems to a large extent connected with the drug abuse situation in the United States. (b) Treaty adherence 202. All three countries in the region are parties to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention. (c) Regional cooperation(40) 203. There is close cooperation in drug-related matters between the three countries in the region, in particular between their law enforcement services. All of the countries are engaged in a number of international drug control programmes and activities. (d) National legislation, policy and action 204. The Board appreciates that the Controlled Drug and Substances Act was passed by the Parliament of Canada in June 1996. That legislation gives the Government the authority to control all psychotropic substances as required by the 1971 Convention and to control precursor chemicals in compliance with the provisions of the 1988 Convention. The Board trusts that the regulations necessary to allow the Government to exercise such control will be introduced soon. 205. In the United States, a comprehensive law enforcement, treatment and prevention strategy against methamphetamine abuse has been developed. The Board hopes that the new strategy will improve the coordination of efforts by the federal, state and local authorities to fight the illicit manufacture of, traffic in and abuse of methamphetamine. 206. In October 1995, Mexico adopted a national drug control plan for the period 1995-2000, which takes into account the results of the five-year plan for the period 1989-1994. The Board appreciates the comprehensive approach of the strategy of the Government of Mexico, which includes the general policy, the coordination of administrative and operational activities and the evaluation mechanism (see also paragraph 219, below). (e) Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (i) Narcotic drugs 207. Cannabis is cultivated to a large extent in the three countries in North America. The Board appreciates the successful efforts of the Government of Mexico, which in 1995 resulted in the eradication of about 21,600 of an estimated 32,000 hectares of cannabis in that country. The Board notes with satisfaction the reports from the United States on the eradication of 373 million cannabis plants. At the same time, the Board expresses its concern about the increase in domestic cannabis cultivation in Canada and the United States. About 50 per cent of the cannabis supply in Canada appears to be from domestic, mainly hydroponic, cultivation. In Mexico, law enforcement authorities seized 780 tonnes of cannabis in 1995 and 400 tonnes of cannabis in the first half of 1996. In the United States, law enforcement authorities seized 455 tonnes of cannabis in 1995. 208. Cannabis remains the main drug of abuse in the region. Its abuse is most prevalent in the United States. According to estimates from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, in 1995, of the 12.8 million estimated monthly abusers of illicit drugs, 77 per cent (9.8 million individuals) were cannabis abusers. That figure is 50 per cent less than the figure for 1979. The monthly abuse rate among youth, however, increased from 8.2 per cent in 1994 to 10.9 per cent in 1995. This situation is said to be related to changing attitudes about the perceived risk of cannabis abuse among young people aged 12-17. These attitudes, i.e. that cannabis is not harmful, are in contrast with the findings of DAWN, which show a steady increase in cannabis-related emergency-room visits. 209. In two states in the United States, referendums were approved in November 1996 which would, if implemented, permit a broad use of cannabis, for alleged medical purposes. The Board appreciates the firm stand of the authorities of the United States against such indirect but evident attempts to legalize cannabis. The Board notes with concern that well-financed, non-profit foundations sponsor institutions that are developing strategies for the legalization of drugs. 210. The Board appreciates the eradication in 1995 of more than 15,000 hectares of poppy fields by the authorities in Mexico, where total illicit poppy cultivation has been estimated at 22,900 hectares. In the United States, 1,146 kg of heroin were seized in 1995, a significant decrease compared with the more than 2 tonnes seized in 1994. According to estimates of the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, there were about 200,000 monthly heroin abusers in the United States in 1995, an estimate significantly higher than that for 1994. The survey did not include the marginalized population of the country, where the incidence of heroin addiction is the highest. In the marginalized population, intravenous injection remains the most frequent form of drug administration; in other segments of the population, heroin smoking or inhalation is on the increase. The prevalence of inhalation techniques of heroin abuse rose from 4.4 per cent (in 1988) to 18.8 per cent (in 1995). In the United States, the majority of heroin abusers are also abusing other drugs or substances: according to DAWN estimates, in 1995, 59 per cent of cases of heroin abuse were associated with cocaine abuse and 55 per cent of heroin abusers were also abusers of alcohol. 211. The abuse of synthetic opioids has been reported in the United States. Cases involving diversion and theft of hydrocodone, oxycodone, pethidine (also known as meperidine in the United States) and dextropropoxyphene were frequently recorded in 1995. 212. In 1995, about the same amount of cocaine was seized as in the previous years in Mexico (approximately 22.5 tonnes) and in the United States (approximately 100 tonnes). According to the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, in 1995, 1.45 million people abused cocaine on a monthly basis in the United States. That figure is low compared with the 1979 figure of 5.7 million abusers, the highest figure recorded, but it does not show any decrease compared with the figure for 1994. There was a significant increase in the monthly cocaine abuse rate among youth (0.8 per cent in 1995 compared with 0.3 per cent in 1994). Cocaine continues to be predominantly abused by smoking. Crack supplies remained abundant everywhere in the United States and an increase in the number of cocaine-related emergency cases was recorded by DAWN in 1995, representing over one fourth of all drug-related cases. (f) Psychotropic substances 213. The illicit manufacture and abuse of methamphetamine continue to create problems in Canada and the United States. Seizures of methamphetamine precursors more than tripled in 1995 in the United States, reaching over 35 tonnes. Besides domestic clandestine laboratories, laboratories located in Mexico have remained major suppliers of the illicit methamphetamine markets in the United States. Abuse of other synthetic stimulants is also widespread. 214. The Board notes with appreciation the initiatives of the authorities and scientific bodies of the United States aimed at evaluating the experience gained in prescribing methylphenidate for the treatment of ADD (called ADHD in the United States), as recommended by the Board, and welcomes the organization of conferences to review the use of stimulants for such purposes and to assess the problems connected with the misdiagnosis of the illness, possible overprescription and abuse (see paragraphs 90-95, above). 215. Illicit methamphetamine manufacture also takes place in Canada, where one of the largest and most sophisticated clandestine laboratories ever discovered in North America was dismantled by the law enforcement authorities in 1996. The laboratory had been in operation for at least four years, producing substantial amounts of MDMA ("ecstasy") and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). 216. Increasing abuse of LSD and other hallucinogens has been reported in the United States; the monthly abuse rate among the youth increased in 1995 to 1.7 per cent from 1.1 per cent in 1994. Almost two thirds of LSD abusers seeking treatment in 1995 were under the age of 20. Widespread abuse of MDMA ("ecstasy") by young adults continues to be reported in many cities in the United States, often in conjunction with "rave" parties and rock concerts. In Canada, in 1995, law enforcement authorities seized a shipment of ergotamine of Indian origin that was so large that approximately 50 million doses of LSD could have been manufactured from it. 217. There have been reports on the abuse of several benzodiazepines in the United States, but the rapid spread of flunitrazepam abuse is currently the main concern of the national authorities. This short-acting benzodiazepine is not marketed in the United States. It is smuggled into the country out of other countries, where it is diverted from licit sources. A new law in the United States has increased penalties for illegal possession of and illegal trade in flunitrazepam. According to DAWN estimates, in 1995, the number of benzodiazepine-related emergency cases continued to increase: they constituted nearly 70 per cent of the cases involving licit narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances. In the United States, alprazolam remains the most frequently abused benzodiazepine, followed by diazepam and clonazepam, the abuse prevalence of the latter drug having increased by 650 per cent between 1988 and 1995. (g) Mission 218. A mission of the Board visited Mexico in September 1996. The Board appreciates that the Government of Mexico has given priority in its overall development plan for the period 1995-2000 to the fight against drugs and that the restructuring of its drug-related agencies, which started at the end of 1994, is to be completed in 1997. The Board trusts that legislation against organized criminality and against money-laundering will be adopted and implemented soon. 219. The Board appreciates the successes of Mexican law enforcement services in the fight against the illicit cultivation of narcotic plants and the illicit manufacture of and traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances (see paragraph 206, above). 220. The Board notes with satisfaction the development of programmes for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse and the continued epidemiological studies on drug abuse in Mexico, as well as the harmonization of the drug abuse surveys in that country with those of other countries (for example, the United States), enabling direct comparisons to be made. 221. In 1993, for example, in Mexico the lifetime prevalence abuse rates were 3.3 per cent for cannabis, 0.5 per cent for cocaine, 0.1 per cent for heroine and 0.3 per cent for hallucinogens, compared with 37.7 per cent, 11.3 per cent, 1.1 per cent and 8.7 per cent respectively in the United States. 222. The Board urges the Government of Mexico to strengthen the control over the licit drug supply, from the manufacturing stage to the dispensing stage. The Board, noting that Mexico has introduced the monitoring of precursors for methamphetamine, invites the Government to proceed with the development and adoption of legislation on precursor control, extending the control measures to other precursors and other chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of cocaine and to acetylating agents used in the country for the illicit manufacture of heroin. (a) Major drug problems 223. In South America, illicit coca bush cultivation, illicit coca leaf production, the illicit manufacture of coca base, coca paste and cocaine hydrochloride, and cocaine abuse continue. South America is the only region supplying cocaine to other parts of the world, above all, the United States and countries in Europe. Despite eradication efforts, illicit opium poppy cultivation, illicit opium production and the illicit manufacture of opiates, which have emerged and spread rapidly since the late 1980s, continue in Colombia and in bordering areas of its neighbouring countries and large amounts of heroin are entering the illicit traffic. Cannabis, the main drug of abuse, is cultivated mainly for domestic consumption; however, substantial amounts of cannabis are smuggled out of South America and into Europe and North America. 224. Illicit drug trafficking within South America is facilitated by geographical conditions (for example the Amazon basin)(41) and by the insufficient cross-border cooperation in several parts of the continent. 225. Non-respect of national regulations and overprescribing are factors contributing to the propagation of the abuse of pharmaceutical preparations containing psychotropic substances, mainly sedatives and anorectics, in several countries in South America. (b) Treaty adherence 226. With the exception of Guyana, which is not a party to the 1961 Convention, all States in South America are parties to the three main international drug control treaties. (c) Regional cooperation 227. The Board notes with satisfaction that, under the auspices of the Organization of American States, countries in the Americas agreed on an Inter-American Convention against Corruption, which was signed at Caracas on 29 March 1996. The Board encourages Governments to ratify and implement that Convention as soon possible. 228. The Board welcomes the recommendations of the ministerial conference against money-laundering held at Buenos Aires in December 1995 and encourages countries in South America to implement those recommendations as soon as possible. 229. The Board appreciates the increasing transborder operations that are being carried out in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, which have led to the seizure of substantial amounts of cannabis and cocaine. 230. The Board notes with satisfaction that in June 1996 the authorities of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela agreed upon the creation of an Andean anti-drug intelligence unit, the exchange of information on transactions involving chemicals destined for their countries and the support of alternative development programmes in South America. (d) National legislation, policy and action 231. The Board welcomes the adoption in Chile in 1995 of legislation on precursors and other chemicals used in illicit drug manufacture. The implementation of the new law enabled the Chilean authorities, in cooperation with the law enforcement services of Bolivia and the United States, to dismantle a trafficking network that had been providing chemicals legally purchased in Chile to illicit cocaine manufacturers in Bolivia. The new law also made possible the seizure of 55 tonnes of various chemicals. The Board has been reassured that, in addition to that legislation, the Government of Chile will introduce complementary regulatory controls over precursors. 232. The Board appreciates that a bill against money-laundering was presented to the congress of Brazil in 1996 and that an asset forfeiture fund has been established in that country to finance prevention and rehabilitation programmes and law enforcement activities. However, the Board urges the Government of Brazil to consider, as a matter of high priority, the adoption of comprehensive drug control legislation, such as the draft developed in August 1995 with the assistance of the Board and UNDCP.(42) The Board hopes that draft legislation to increase sentences for crime related to drug trafficking and to allow for the forfeiture of seized assets will soon be adopted in Colombia. The Board urges the Governments of Paraguay and Suriname to enact the legislation necessary to implement the provisions of the 1988 Convention, including measures against money-laundering. 233. The Board notes the creation in Peru of CONTRADROGAS, a new drug control institution and trusts that clearly defined responsibilities and relationships with other drug control entities will further enhance measures against illicit trafficking and drug abuse. 234. The Board appreciates the substantial increase in the budget for programmes for reducing illicit drug demand in Chile and notes with satisfaction that epidemiological drug abuse surveys are being conducted in several countries in the region, including the first survey to be carried out in 1996 in Colombia. The Board encourages the Government of Bolivia to strengthen its involvement in similar programmes. In order to ensure the comparability of results, the Board invites Governments to harmonize drug abuse surveys. (e) Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (i) Narcotic drugs 235. Cannabis continues to be cultivated in South America, mainly in Brazil and Colombia. Cannabis is smuggled into Europe out of Colombia; cases involving the smuggling of cannabis out of Guyana and Paraguay have also been reported. Cannabis remains the main drug of abuse in South America. The abuse of cannabis oil has been reported in Colombia. 236. Opium poppy was increasingly cultivated in Colombia following the late 1980s; however, reliable information on the extent of illicit opium cultivation in recent years does not appear to be available. In 1995, the area under poppy cultivation was estimated at 6,500 hectares, of which more than 5,000 hectares were subsequently eradicated. There were also reports on illicit opium poppy cultivation in Peru and Venezuela. About 1,660 hectares of opium poppy fields were eradicated in 1995 in the areas of Venezuela that border Colombia. 237. The amount of illicit opium production in Colombia in 1995 was estimated at 65.5 tonnes. Opium is converted into morphine and heroin in clandestine laboratories in Colombia. Compared with the estimated scale of illicit manufacture, the amounts of seized opium, morphine and heroin, as well as precursors and chemicals, are relatively small, contrasting with the large cocaine seizures (see paragraph 239, below). The abuse of opiates seems to be limited in Colombia; most of the heroin is smuggled out of the country, mainly to the United States, where heroin of Colombian origin has accounted for the main share of the heroin seized. This high proportion might be due to the increasing cooperation between law enforcement authorities of the two countries. 238. Illicit coca bush cultivation continues in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. In Bolivia, coca bush eradication declined steadily after 1991, reaching its lowest level in 1994, but eradication efforts have recently been resumed. Bolivia eradicated 5,500 hectares of coca bush in 1995 and then eradicated the same amount between January and September 1996. In Colombia, the eradication of more than 25,000 hectares of coca bush and the seizure of 394 tonnes of coca leaves were reported in 1995 and 292 tonnes of coca leaves were seized in the first half of 1996. In Peru, which remains the main producer of coca leaves, coca bush eradication efforts focus almost exclusively on seedlings. In the opinion of the Board, the Government of Peru needs to expand its eradication efforts to include mature plantations as well. 239. Coca paste and coca base are produced mainly in Bolivia and Peru, but the illicit manufacture of cocaine hydrochloride is on the increase in those countries. Nevertheless, a significant proportion of coca paste and base continue to be smuggled into Colombia for further processing. From 1990 to 1994, Colombia accounted for 52 per cent of the total amount of cocaine seized in South America; in 1995, more than 60 tonnes of coca base and cocaine were seized in that country. Most of the precursors and other chemicals (mainly solvents and acids) used in illicit cocaine manufacture have been seized in Colombia; however, compared with the large quantities of heroin manufactured, the amounts of seized precursors and chemicals used in clandestine heroin laboratories (for example acetic anhydride) are minimal. 240. The abuse of cocaine, mainly in the form of cocaine base (basuco, for example), continues to create problems in South America. An increase of cocaine abuse has been reported in Brazil and Chile. In Brazil, where the growing abuse of crack has also been reported, cocaine-related hospital admissions have increased. (ii) Psychotropic substances 241. The abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants continues in Brazil. The abuse of sedatives has been reported in Brazil and Colombia only, but in the opinion of the Board it may be more widespread in the region. 242. The Board welcomes the initiative of the Government of Brazil to reorganize the system of control over the trade in and distribution of pharmaceutical products containing psychotropic substances. The Board encourages that Government to ensure full respect for the provisions of national regulations by drug manufacturers and distributors. 243. The Board notes with satisfaction the strengthening of control of stimulants in Chile, which has led already to a substantial reduction of the abuse of those drugs (see paragraph 234, above). (a) Major drug problems 244. Illicit opium poppy cultivation, opium production, heroin manufacture and large-scale illicit trafficking in opiates constitute the greatest drug problems of south-east Asia. Myanmar remains one of the largest opium producers and heroin suppliers in the world. The surrender of Khun Sa, the key person in the illicit drug trade, and the cease-fire concluded between the Government of Myanmar and insurgent groups have created a new situation in the Golden Triangle, particularly in Shan State, where most of the opium has been produced. Opium smoking is diminishing in the region, but unfortunately it is being replaced by heroin injecting, mainly in south-east Asia. The region is seriously affected by the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine, the illicit traffic in methamphetamine and its precursors, particularly ephedrine, and the large-scale abuse of methamphetamine. (b) Treaty adherence 245. In 1996, the Philippines (see paragraph 18, above) ratified the 1988 Convention. Of the 15 States in the region, 12 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 9 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 6 are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges Cambodia, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Viet Nam, which are not parties to any of the international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties. (c) Regional cooperation 246. The Board appreciates the continuing cooperation between Cambodia, China, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam, which have signed a memorandum of understanding on drug control, and the adoption of new subregional projects. (d) National legislation, policy and action 247. In Cambodia, new drug legislation(43) is expected to be adopted by the national assembly in 1996. 248. The Board appreciates that in Hong Kong, which is one of the world's largest financial centres, existing laws against money-laundering were amended in 1995. In Hong Kong a new chemical control ordinance came into force in January 1996. The ordinance places under national control all of the substances listed in the tables of the 1988 Convention. The authorities in Hong Kong have worked closely with the Board in implementing that ordinance, which has been instrumental in identifying several major diversion attempts. The Board hopes that the established drug control system will continue to function efficiently after Hong Kong has been returned to China in July 1997. 249. In the Lao People's Democratic Republic, a revised drug control law was adopted in 1996 by the national assembly, introducing, inter alia, increased penalties for illicit trafficking, prohibition of opium production and control over precursors and other chemicals. The Board greatly appreciates this important step and encourages the Government of the Lao People's Democratic Republic to continue with the development of its drug control legislation. 250. The Board notes with satisfaction the adoption of a special law against illicit drug trafficking in the Republic of Korea. The law, which was adopted in December 1995, includes the main provisions of the 1988 Convention. 251. The Board notes with satisfaction that in Viet Nam a comprehensive drug law is being drafted, with the assistance of UNDCP. (e) Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (i) Narcotic drugs 252. Cannabis grows wild and is also cultivated in many countries in south-east Asia. In Indonesia, large quantities of cannabis are produced in northern Sumatra, primarily to supply the domestic market. Most of the cannabis produced in the southern part of the Lao People's Democratic Republic is smuggled into Thailand. There is extensive illicit cannabis cultivation in the Philippines and Thailand; large amounts of cannabis are smuggled out of both countries. 253. Cannabis abuse has been reported in most countries in south-east Asia. 254. Some illicit opium poppy cultivation and opium production, mainly for domestic markets, have been reported in Cambodia and in China along its borders with the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Viet Nam. An opium survey carried out by the Lao People's Democratic Republic and UNDCP from December 1995 to February 1996 found that opium production in the northern part of that country had increased slightly to 140 tonnes. A further decline in opium production has been reported in Viet Nam. There are no reliable estimates of opium production in Myanmar, which remains one of the largest opium producers in the world. Opium poppy is grown in the north-eastern part of Myanmar, mainly in Shan State, where a considerable increase in opium production has been reported in recent years. 255. Illicit heroin laboratories are concentrated in the border areas between China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Thailand. Those areas together continue to supply most of the heroin found on the world's illicit markets. The surrender in January 1996 of the organizer of the illicit drug trade in the Golden Triangle and his Mong Tai army has created a new situation. The recent discovery of clandestine heroin laboratories far from Shan State, the heroin shortage on the black market in Thailand and the drastic increase in the price of heroin along the border between Myanmar and Thailand might be indications that some clandestine heroin laboratories have discontinued their activity. Recent law enforcement activities in northern and eastern Shan State have resulted in the destruction of 11 heroin laboratories and the seizure of large quantities of chemicals used in the illicit heroin manufacture. The Board expects that these events will enable the Government of Myanmar to substantially reduce the illicit heroin manufacture in the country. 256. China has reported the seizure of large consignments of acetic anhydride, the key chemical used in the illicit manufacture of heroin, and it is believed that they were destined for the Golden Triangle. In 1995, China reported the seizure of some 90 tonnes of chemicals and precursors. 257. South-east Asian heroin is smuggled through the territory of China, mainly through the south-western part of the country, though the most frequently used route continues to be through Thailand. Increasing seizures in Indonesia, the Philippines and Viet Nam illustrate that those countries are also used as transit points by heroin traffickers. 258. Diminishing opium abuse has been reported in several south-east Asian countries, mainly in the opium-producing highland areas, where opium smoking is still a tradition among hill-tribes. However, opium smoking continues to be superseded by heroin abuse in most countries in the subregion. This trend, unfortunately, is accompanied by increased drug injecting and needle-sharing and a higher incidence of HIV infection. 259. The abuse of cough syrups containing codeine, especially in combination with ephedrine, is creating problems in south-east Asia, particularly in Malaysia and Myanmar. Such pharmaceutical preparations are manufactured locally or smuggled into the subregion. (ii) Psychotropic substances 260. The illicit manufacture of, traffic in and abuse of amphetamines, particularly methamphetamine, are among the major drug problems in the region. There have been reports on the manufacture of methamphetamine in laboratories that had previously been engaged in the clandestine manufacture of heroin only. The existence of such laboratories has been reported in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam. In the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1996, enough chemicals and equipment were seized in one laboratory to manufacture an estimated 400 kg of methamphetamine. In 1995, 24 methamphetamine smuggling groups were dismantled in the Republic of Korea. In 1996, a large illicit methamphetamine laboratory was detected in the Philippines, leading to the seizure of more than 600 kg of methamphetamine and 1.6 tonnes of ephedrine. Substantial quantities of amphetamines have been seized in China in the period 1991-1995. In Thailand, more than 5 million methamphetamine tablets were seized in the first six months of 1996. Ephedrine seems to be the most frequently used precursor for methamphetamine, which appears to be mainly of Chinese origin. Methamphetamine is smuggled on a large scale through China (Taiwan Province) and the Philippines. 261. In Thailand, the number of abusers of amphetamines is estimated at 260,000 and the increasing amphetamine abuse among teenagers is a concern of national authorities. Further propagation of methamphetamine abuse, even among teenagers, has been noted in Japan. Methamphetamine abuse has been reported also in the Republic of Korea. 262. The abuse of or illicit traffic in hallucinogenic amphetamine derivatives (e.g. "ecstasy") has been reported in Hong Kong, Indonesia and Singapore. The supply seems to originate in the Netherlands. (f) Missions 263. The Board sent a mission to China in April 1996 to review in particular the control of precursors under the 1988 Convention. The Board appreciates that progress has been made in controlling substances in Tables I and II of that Convention since the last time that it had sent a mission to that country.(44) The Board also appreciates that the Government is now regularly making inquiries to ascertain the legitimacy of individual shipments of precursors from its territory. The Board has nevertheless noted that there is a further need to establish effective mechanisms to monitor the imports of those substances into China, as well as their domestic distribution. 264. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government of China will ensure that the controls over precursors as exercised in Hong Kong, especially as they relate to international trade, will continue to be applied in that territory after it has been returned to China in 1997. The Board trusts that, to that end, proper channels of communication at the working level are being established. 265. In April 1996 the Board sent a mission to Malaysia. The Board notes with satisfaction that the drug control administration functions efficiently and the procedures to implement the provisions of the laws and regulations are meticulously followed. The Board noted the existence of well-established treatment and rehabilitation programmes. The Board also appreciated that the Government already responded positively to its few specific proposals in respect of the control of psychotropic substances. In the opinion of the Board, the well-functioning drug control administration in Malaysia could serve as a model for countries that need to establish more effective control systems. (a) Major drug problems 266. The changes in the drug abuse trends in South Asia continue: in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, the drug of abuse is shifting from opium to heroin and, more recently, also to buprenorphine, a potent synthetic opioid manufactured in India; and the route of administration is shifting from inhalation (smoking) to injection. The abuse of codeine-based cough syrups has taken on substantial proportions in several parts of the region. The increase in the abuse of opioids (buprenorphine and codeine) has been facilitated by weaknesses in the controls over the licit drug supply system: pharmaceutical preparations containing narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances are available without medical prescription. Despite strengthened regulatory and control measures and significant law enforcement successes, the illicit manufacture of methaqualone and the smuggling of that substance into Africa have continued. (b) Treaty adherence 267. Of the six States in South Asia, four are parties to the 1961 Convention, three are parties to the 1971 Convention and five are parties to the 1988 Convention. Maldives is not a party to any of the three international drug control treaties and the Board urges that State to accede to those treaties. (c) Regional cooperation 268. The Board notes with satisfaction the active cooperation between national law enforcement services in the region, on the basis of bilateral agreements and through the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC). The Board welcomes the decision of SAARC and UNDCP to strengthen their coordination and cooperation with one another. 269. The Board welcomes the recent agreement between the Governments of India and Pakistan to undertake joint investigations of illicit cross-border trafficking in narcotic drugs and chemicals used in their illicit manufacture. The Board notes with satisfaction that the two Governments have started to explore the possibilities of joint controlled delivery operations aimed at detecting persons smuggling acetic anhydride out of India and into Pakistan and persons smuggling heroin out of Pakistan and into India. The Board encourages the Governments of India and Pakistan to continue their dialogue on the sharing of intelligence and the prosecution of persons who have engaged in money-laundering. (d) National legislation, policy and action 270. The Board appreciates the adoption of a national drug control policy in Nepal in May 1996. The Board encourages the Government of Maldives to adopt its new draft drug legislation as soon as possible. 271. The Board notes with satisfaction the preparatory steps undertaken in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka for the adoption of legislation against money-laundering. It also notes with satisfaction the decision of the Government of India to update its legislation against such activity. The Board urges the Government of Nepal to take action against money-laundering because there are currently no laws or regulations in that country against such activity. 272. The Board appreciates that Bangladesh has undertaken major efforts to train national law enforcement agencies in drug identification and intelligence techniques, as well as to extend the activities of criminal investigation divisions to include drug control. At the same time the Board urges the Government of Bangladesh to take action aimed at strengthening controls over the licit drug supply system. 273. The Government of India has continued to support drug abuse treatment centres in 31 governmental medical institutions and 136 non-governmental centres. A national federation of Indian non-governmental organizations for drug abuse prevention has been formed. Initiatives to reduce illicit drug demand include the development and implementation of a national strategy for community-based approaches and programmes for the prevention of HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). (e) Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (i) Narcotic drugs 274. Cannabis grows wild and is also illicitly cultivated in South Asia. The abuse of cannabis is widespread in the region. Cannabis resin is produced mainly in Nepal and is smuggled into India, mainly out of Nepal and Pakistan. There have been some reports on the abuse of cannabis oil in Maldives. 275. Licit opium poppy cultivation and opium production are under governmental control in India. Some diversion has occurred in the opium production areas; consequently, controls over cultivation and production have been strengthened and licences of farmers not complying with regulations have been withdrawn. The number of licensed farmers for the crop year 1995/96 has decreased from 104,000 to 78,000 (see paragraph 68, above). There have been reports on small-scale illicit opium production in north-eastern India. 276. Indian authorities have detected and destroyed a number of laboratories manufacturing crude heroin. In 1995, there was an increase of more than 50 per cent in the total amount of heroin seized in India, while the amount of seized heroin originating in south-west Asia increased by over 300 per cent. 277. In India, traditional abuse of opium still continues in some provinces, but in many others the abuse of heroin or synthetic opioids is increasing. There have been continuing reports on an alarming increase in opiate dependence in the north-eastern part of the country, which borders the opium-producing areas of south-east Asia. 278. Inhalation is the most frequent route of administration used by heroin abusers in Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka; however, in India there are signs of increased use of injection techniques, a major factor contributing to the spread of HIV infection among drug abusers in that country. 279. In Bangladesh, India and Nepal, the large-scale abuse of cough syrups continues.(45) Because of weaknesses in the controls over the pharmaceutical supply system, a number of genuine, counterfeit and fake syrups are freely available in those countries. Reports on the composition of these preparations have been contradictory, but codeine phosphate is usually the main ingredient. The reports also contradict each other concerning the codeine content of the preparations. The Board urges the Governments in the region to undertake joint action to clarify the situation and to prevent this type of opiate abuse (see also paragraph 281, below). 280. The serious consequences of the increased abuse of buprenorphine were mentioned in the report of the Board for 1995.(46) The introduction of an export/import authorization regime by the Indian authorities does not appear to have prevented the illicit traffic in buprenorphine and the further spread of buprenorphine abuse in Bangladesh and Nepal, or even in India itself. Despite existing prescription obligations, injectable buprenorphine preparations are easily available in the region without medical prescription. In Bangladesh, buprenorphine is abused by 90 per cent of injecting drug abusers. Thus, the propagation of buprenorphine abuse means the propagation of injecting drug abuse. The Board reiterates its appeal to WHO and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs to review the status of international control of buprenorphine without further delay.(47) 281. The Board welcomes the initiative of the Government of India on holding a SAARC workshop in November 1996 on strategies to regulate the marketing of pharmaceutical preparations containing opioids (such as buprenorphine or codeine-based cough syrups). The Board urges the Governments of Bangladesh, India and Nepal to undertake joint action to reduce the availability of such pharmaceutical products. 282. There have been a few reports on cocaine abuse in the region. (ii) Psychotropic substances 283. India is the only country in South Asia in which the abuse of psychotropic substances is considered a major problem. In the opinion of the Governments of Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka, the abuse of psychotropic substances has not created major problems in their countries. 284. Despite the efforts of the competent authorities, the illicit manufacture of methaqualone continues in India. In 1995, four clandestine laboratories were destroyed, and 20 tonnes of methaqualone were seized. Substantial amounts of methaqualone were smuggled out of India into eastern and southern Africa (see paragraph 160, above). Control of the important methaqualone precursor N-acetylanthranilic acid and increased law enforcement measures have resulted in a reduction of clandestine manufacturing activities in the Bombay area. However, it is feared that such activities might have shifted to elsewhere within or outside India. 285. In India, in order to prevent illicit trafficking in precursors for methamphetamine, a system of prior approval has been introduced for the export of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. The excellent cooperation between Indian authorities and the Board has led to the identification and prevention of attempts to divert large amounts of benzodiazepines, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. 286. In India, there have been a few reports on the abuse of amphetamine derivatives, including some cases involving the abuse of "ecstasy" in the tourist resort of Goa, and the abuse of locally manufactured barbiturates and benzodiazepines is on the rise. The dispensing of such products in pharmacies without medical prescription is a factor contributing to the increasing abuse. (f) Mission 287. A mission of the Board visited India in January 1996 to assess the situation of licit opium production in that country. 288. The Board notes with satisfaction the considerable progress made in India in the implementation of the recommendations made by the Board during its previous missions. The Board appreciates the improvement of the method of evaluation of the opium yield and the other control measures that have been introduced in the country for the prevention of diversion. The Board encourages the Government of India to continue its efforts aimed at the further improvement of controls over licit opium poppy cultivation and opium production. 289. The Board is confident that the Government of India will continue to play its important role, as a traditional supplier of opiate raw materials, in ensuring the international community an adequate availability of opiate raw materials and assisting the Board in its task of maintaining a lasting balance between the supply of opiate raw materials and demand for opiates. (a) Major drug problems 290. The illicit cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy in Afghanistan, and to some extent in central Asia, in the Caucasus and in Pakistan, the illicit production of cannabis resin in Afghanistan and the clandestine manufacture of heroin in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Turkey constitute the main sources of supply for illicit traffickers and local drug abusers in West Asia. Due to the political turmoil and civil war in Afghanistan, implementation of drug control measures has become impossible in that country, which is the main source of illicit supply of opiates in the region, and combating drug smuggling out of Afghanistan depends mainly on the efforts of the law enforcement services of its neighbouring States. The prevention of heroin manufacture is hindered by the flow of large amounts of acetic anhydride into the region. Several countries suffer from large-scale illicit trafficking in cannabis resin and heroin (destined for countries in the region or in Europe). Cannabis appears to be the most abused drug in West Asia. Heroin smoking is widespread in Pakistan. The injection of poppy straw extracts is a problem in CIS member States. Illicit trafficking in and abuse of stimulants continue in the Middle East and on the Arab peninsula and seem to be on the rise in central Asia. (b) Treaty adherence 291. Since the last report of the Board was published, Lebanon (see paragraph 18, above), Tajikistan and Turkey have acceded to the 1988 Convention and Turkmenistan and Yemen have acceded to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention. Of the 24 States in West Asia, 20 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 18 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 19 are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges the Governments of Georgia and Kazakstan, which are not parties to any of the international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties. (c) Regional cooperation 292. The Board notes with satisfaction the increasing cooperation between countries in subregions of West Asia. The Board appreciates the creation of a political and legal framework adopted at a ministerial summit at Tashkent in May 1996, when a memorandum of understanding was signed by five CIS member States and UNDCP for cooperation in drug control between central Asian States. The Board also appreciates the adoption of a concrete, comprehensive cooperation programme. There is an urgent need for the implementation of such a programme because the central Asian subregion has become a major drug transit area and its legal structures and law enforcement services are in need of modernization. 293. The Board appreciates the adoption of the plan on drug control by the member States of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)(48) in 1995 and their recent decision to start with the implementation of that plan already in 1996. Particularly in view of the civil war in Afghanistan, the Board encourages ECO member States to continue with their drug control efforts in their own countries in order to prevent the free flow of illicit drugs from Afghanistan. The Board invites international organizations and individual Governments to support ECO member States in the fulfilment of this difficult task. 294. The Board welcomes the development of a comprehensive Arab drug control strategy by an expert committee of the League of Arab States. The Board hopes that the new strategy, which is awaiting adoption by the Council of Arab Ministers of Social Affairs, will improve technical cooperation between States in the Persian Gulf area and their neighbours. The Board expects that the first such initiative, a bilateral agreement between Saudi Arabia and Yemen, will be followed by others. 295. The Board welcomes the decision taken by the Governments of Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey to promote cross-border cooperation among their drug law enforcement agencies. 296. There is a real need for efforts to reduce illicit drug demand in the region; consequently, the Board highly appreciates the UNDCP initiative on the organization of a subregional expert forum on demand reduction at Abu Dhabi in 1997, with participants from Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. 297. The Board acknowledges the importance of the bilateral agreement on drug control matters between Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates and notes with satisfaction that Pakistan will conclude similar agreements with the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kazakstan, the Russian Federation and Saudi Arabia. The Board highly appreciates the recent agreement between the Governments of India and Pakistan in their practical cross-border cooperation in the field of narcotics control (see paragraph 269, above). (d) National legislation, policy and action 298. The Board notes with satisfaction the development of a national plan on demand reduction in the Islamic Republic of Iran, in response to a recommendation made by the Board in its report for 1995.(49) 299. The Board hopes that amended drug control legislation will be adopted soon by the parliament of Pakistan. At the same time, the Board reiterates its request to the Government of Pakistan to give the highest priority to the implementation of federal narcotic legislation in tribal areas where substantial illicit cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking continue and to take effective action aimed at punishing drug traffickers.(50) 300. The Board appreciates the creation of a state committee on drug control in Tajikistan and the establishment of an interministerial committee on drug control in Yemen. 301. There are many opportunities for money-laundering in the region; consequently, the Board welcomes every action taken against this criminal activity, such as the development in Turkey of national legislation against money-laundering, legislation that is already under consideration by the parliament. The Board reiterates its request to the Government of the United Arab Emirates to strengthen measures for the prevention of diversion of precursors for narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and to speed up the process of drafting and adopting legislation against money-laundering.(51) (e) Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (i) Narcotic drugs 302. Cannabis grows wild in many countries in the region, above all in central Asia.(52) It is illicitly cultivated mainly in Afghanistan, but also in Pakistan, in central Asia and in the Caucasus. Cannabis resin is produced mainly in Afghanistan and Pakistan. 303. Afghanistan and Pakistan continue to be major suppliers of the cannabis resin found on illicit markets in Europe. Significant seizures of cannabis resin in transit in the Islamic Republic of Iran and in Turkey illustrate the large extent of such traffic in those countries. Illicit traffickers make use of the same routes for the trans-shipment of cannabis resin as for the trans-shipment of opiates (see paragraph 307, below). The Arab peninsula is also frequently used for the trans-shipment of cannabis resin in those countries. 304. The abuse of cannabis is widespread in the region. In central Asia, the Middle East and the Caucasus, cannabis is the most popular drug of abuse. 305. Opium poppy is illicitly cultivated and opium is produced mainly in Afghanistan and also in the CIS member States in central Asia (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), in Pakistan and, to a small extent, in Armenia and Azerbaijan. Illicit poppy cultivation plots were eradicated in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan in 1996. The Board notes with satisfaction the drastic decrease in illicit opium poppy cultivation in Pakistan and encourages the Government of that country to continue its efforts to eliminate the illicit opium production. No opium production has been reported in the Islamic Republic of Iran. 306. Heroin manufacture is taking place in Afghanistan (mainly in the area along its border with Pakistan), in Pakistan (in the tribal belt) and in Turkey (where six primitive laboratories were dismantled in 1996). Smaller-scale heroin manufacture has been reported in Lebanon. In Kazakstan, because of the easy availability of opium (produced in the area or in Afghanistan) and locally manufactured acetic anhydride, crude heroin has been manufactured in clandestine laboratories. Huge amounts of acetic anhydride are smuggled into the region out of other Asian countries and Europe. Acetic anhydride shipments from countries in western Europe and from CIS member States usually pass through countries in central Asia or through Turkey. In 1995, seizures of acetic anhydride doubled in Turkey. 307. There are various routes for smuggling opiates in the region that are also used for smuggling cannabis resin. The most traditional route for heroin smuggling leads from Afghanistan or Pakistan across the Islamic Republic of Iran and Turkey to Europe. In mid-1996, 2 tonnes of heroin were seized in Pakistan. In the opinion of the Government of Turkey, 75 per cent of the heroin passing from the region to Europe transits Turkey (a part of it is manufactured in local clandestine laboratories from opium or morphine smuggled into the country). Some diminishing smuggling activity has been reported in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Another route originates in Afghanistan and leads from Khorog in Gorno-Badakhshan province, Tajikistan, through the only mountain road (700 km long) to Osh in Kyrgyzstan. Illicit traffickers take advantage of the lack of border controls along the roads from Afghanistan through CIS member States. The heroin shipments are transported through different countries in central Asia and/or the Caucasus to Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russian Federation and Ukraine and further to destinations in central and western Europe. In addition, territories of countries in the Middle East and on the Arab peninsula are used as transit points for smuggling south-west Asian heroin (and cannabis resin), mainly to Europe. 308. Continuing opium abuse has been reported in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Heroin smoking is considered a major problem in the region, mainly in Pakistan. There have been some reports of heroin abuse in countries in the Persian Gulf area and in Israel. Increasing opiate abuse, particularly among youth, has been reported in countries in central Asia and in Armenia. In those countries injection of poppy straw extracts is the prevalent form of opiate abuse. 309. Cocaine abuse in the region was reported to be negligible, but some increase has been observed recently. There has been a slight increase in cocaine seizures in Turkey. (ii) Psychotropic substances 310. The clandestine manufacture of, illicit trafficking in and abuse of stimulants constitute problems in several countries in West Asia. The illicit manufacture of amphetamine, ephedrine and methcathinone (ephedrone) has been reported in Armenia, Kazakstan and Kyrgyzstan. Shipments of amphetamine-type stimulants, mainly fenetylline, are smuggled out of Europe mainly via Turkey, but also through Lebanon and the Syrian Arab Republic into countries on the Arab peninsula. Stimulant abuse continues in several countries in the region; it appears to be on the rise in central Asia and the Caucasus. Some precursors for stimulants are smuggled out of Asia and Europe, through Israel, Lebanon and the United Arab Emirates, into countries outside the region. The Board reiterates that the Governments concerned should analyse the drugs seized, investigate drug trafficking routes and cooperate closely in investigations. 311. Cases involving the abuse of LSD and hallucinogenic amphetamines (e.g. "ecstasy") have been reported in Israel. 312. The Board is aware of reports from CIS member States on the illicit manufacture of "synthetic drugs" and invites those States to forward more precise information about those drugs so that countermeasures may be developed. 1. Major drug problems 313. Large amounts of heroin from south-west and south-east Asia, cocaine from South America and cannabis resin from northern Africa and West Asia continue to be smuggled into Europe; nevertheless, the prevalence of heroin and cocaine abuse in most of the western European countries is declining. There is a clear, steadily increasing trend in the illicit traffic in and abuse of synthetic drugs manufactured in clandestine laboratories in Europe. Illicit drug markets in and outside of Europe are supplied with amphetamine, with stimulant amphetamine derivatives (such as methamphetamine) and, above all, with hallucinogenic amphetamine derivatives (such as MDMA, commonly known as "ecstasy") by illicit laboratories located in Europe. Besides illicit manufacture, illicit cultivation has become an important element of the European drug scene: persons using hydroponics in the indoor cultivation of potent cannabis varieties have become suppliers of illicit drug markets in Europe. The transfer of that technology has facilitated the spread of such illicit cultivation. 314. Precursors and other chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and/or psychotropic substances are manufactured in many European countries. However, there have been reports of seizures of only certain precursors and in only a limited number of countries in western Europe. 315. In CIS member States and, to some extent, in the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and some central and eastern European countries, the new socio-economic frameworks require more rapid development of administrative and legal structures to prevent drug-related crime and to ensure more effective border controls. 2. Treaty adherence 316. In 1996, Estonia acceded to the 1961 Convention, Bulgaria, Estonia, the Russian Federation and Switzerland ratified the 1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention, Estonia and Switzerland became parties to the 1971 Convention and Ireland and Malta ratified the 1988 Convention. Of the 45 States in Europe, 41 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 39 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 33 are parties to the 1988 Convention. 317. Albania is not a party to any of the three main international drug control treaties. The Board urges the Government of that country to accede to those treaties as soon as possible. The Board again calls on the Government of Austria to accede to the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention (see paragraph 78, above). 3. Regional cooperation 318. The Board welcomes the launching in 1995 of the European Union action plan on the prevention of drug addiction. The Board hopes that the functioning of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction at Lisbon will contribute to improved cooperation between Governments of member States of the European Union, resulting in, inter alia, comparable data on drug abuse. The Board appreciates that countries have now started to deal with differences between drug policies of member States of the European Union. In the opinion of the Board, such differences have hindered the effectiveness of action against illicit trafficking and drug abuse. The Board notes with satisfaction the elimination of "open drug scenes", which were sending the wrong message to drug abusers and illicit traffickers, namely that the authorities of several big cities were tolerant or permissive in dealing with drug abuse. 319. The Board appreciates the assistance provided by the European Union to countries in Europe and in other regions and encourages member States of the European Union to continue those efforts. The Board trusts that close cooperation with international organizations and other European institutions will eliminate parallel activities, repetition of actions and application of different methodologies. 4. National legislation, policy and action 320. The Board notes with concern statements of some government officials in Switzerland and also in other countries about preliminary results of the Swiss project on the prescription of heroin to drug addicts and its evaluation by WHO.(53) Those statements are based on some sentences, taken out of context, from an unpublished interim report that will be studied by WHO experts. In reality, the Swiss heroin project has not been finalized and has not been evaluated, either by Swiss authorities or by WHO. The Board regrets the attempts of political pressure groups to exploit the project as part of their campaign to achieve a wider distribution of heroin. The Board will cooperate fully with the Government of Switzerland within the terms of the international drug control treaties, but that does not mean that the Board endorses the project. 321. In Germany, a regional government plans to apply to the Federal Health Office for a permit to distribute cannabis through pharmacies in the context of an experiment, claiming incorrectly that the experience of the coffee-shop policy in the Netherlands had been positive. The Board is concerned about such plans, since the distribution of cannabis would not serve scientific purposes, would be a contravention of the 1961 Convention and would be a way of legalizing cannabis. The Board trusts that the federal Government of Germany, in accordance with its firm and consistent policy based on the international drug control conventions, will do its utmost to prevent such distribution of cannabis. 322. The Board notes with satisfaction that in 1996, following the ratification by Malta of the 1988 Convention, the relevant legislation was passed in that country, laws on precursor control and on the licit trade in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances were adopted in Latvia, drug legislation was updated in Ukraine and control over money-laundering was strengthened in the Czech Republic and Portugal. The Board welcomes the adoption in 1996 of legislation on precursor control in Hungary and hopes that similar legislation will be adopted soon in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Board urges the Governments of other States in central and eastern Europe that are parties to the 1988 Convention to proceed with the adoption of laws governing the control of precursors, as provided for in that convention. 323. The Board welcomes the fact that a governmental fund, derived from assets seized in relation with illicit trafficking or other drug crimes was created in December 1995 in Spain. The Board appreciates the fact that the fund will be used for: (a) the repression of illicit drug trafficking; (b) the support of prevention, rehabilitation and social integration programmes; and (c) international cooperation in drug-related matters. 324. The Board also notes with satisfaction the introduction of a new, comprehensive export-import control system over narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors in the Russian Federation in 1996. 325. The Board welcomes the establishment of national coordinating committees on drug control in Belarus and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in 1995 and in Estonia in 1996. 326. The Board appreciates the launching of a new action programme on drug control with emphasis on prevention and treatment in Belgium and a federal action programme for the period 1995-1997 in the Russian Federation, as well as the adoption by the parliament of Croatia of a new strategy for the prevention of drug abuse. 5. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (a) Narcotic drugs 327. Cannabis remains the main drug of abuse in Europe. Increasing abuse of the substance by young people has been reported in most countries in the region. Cannabis plants grow wild on over 1 million hectares in the Russian Federation, particularly in the northern Caucasus and the eastern parts of the country. There have been some reports of cannabis cultivation in Belarus and Ukraine, in the Baltic States and in central and eastern European countries. 328. Large-scale indoor cultivation of cannabis is limited to the Netherlands, but small-scale cultivation is spreading to other European countries, driven by the export of cannabis seeds, primarily from the Netherlands. The Board notes the recent initiatives of the Government of the Netherlands to address more effectively illicit domestic indoor cannabis cultivation and the export of cannabis seeds (see paragraph 357, below). 329. Cannabis plants are being licitly cultivated for industrial purposes in more and more countries in Europe. Due to environmental and other well-founded considerations, the licit cultivation of fibre hemp is encouraged by subsidies in the member States of the European Union. Those States are obliged to adapt themselves to the requirements of the European Union regarding tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content, selection of cannabis varieties, controls etc.(54) The Board reiterates its request to the European Union to provide information on the functioning of that system, including the evaluation of the effectiveness of the safeguards against illicit cultivation of and trafficking in cannabis varieties that are not in conformity with the requirements of the European Union. The Board invites Governments in the region to inform the Board of their experiences, since the expansion of licit cannabis cultivation may result in Governments being faced with insurmountable problems regarding detection and elimination of illicit cannabis cultivation. 330. Cannabis is smuggled out of Africa, Asia and South America and into Europe. Most of the cannabis resin seized in Europe originates in Morocco. 331. Despite its prohibition, increasing illicit poppy cultivation has been reported in Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Russian Federation and Ukraine. 332. There have been few reports on the production and abuse of opium, but the abuse of poppy straw extracts has continued in Belarus, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, in the Baltic States and in some countries in central and eastern Europe. Illicit trafficking in poppy straw is on the increase in several CIS member States. Large amounts of poppy straw are smuggled out of Ukraine and into the Baltic States and the Russian Federation. 333. Intravenous injection is the most frequent form of administration of poppy straw extracts. It is a major source of HIV infection among drug abusers in the region, especially in those countries where the HIV infection rates are relatively low. In Ukraine, for example, the number of identified HIV cases rose from 183 in 1994 to 1,673 in 1995 and to 5,360 in May 1996; 70 per cent of the infected individuals were injecting drug abusers. 334. There are reports on the availability of heroin hydrochloride in several States in central and eastern Europe and in CIS member States. The prevalence of heroin abuse is lower than in western Europe but a rapid increase in the number of heroin abuse cases has been reported in Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia. 335. The Board notes that in most countries in western Europe seizures have declined in recent years, while purity of seized heroin has increased as prices have declined. Governments should carefully analyse the reasons for this development and be prepared to react to any resulting changes in the abuse situation. 336. The Balkan route remains the main route used for smuggling heroin, as illustrated by substantial heroin seizures in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. It is estimated that 75 per cent of the heroin smuggled into Europe is transported along the Balkan route. 337. The territory of the Russian Federation is becoming a crossroad for illicit drug trafficking. The activity of organized criminal groups and the removal of customs barriers between CIS member States have made it possible for traffickers to transport illicit shipments from the Golden Crescent through central Asia, the Russian Federation and Belarus without being checked. Some CIS member States have also become important suppliers of acetic anhydride for clandestine heroin laboratories in West Asia. The Board highly appreciates the information provided by Russian law enforcement agencies regarding their operational activities, which led to the interception of 75 tonnes of acetic anhydride of Russian origin in Turkmenistan that had been destined for Afghanistan. 338. Illicit trafficking in and abuse of synthetic opioids (buprenorphine, methadone and pethidine) have been reported in several countries in Europe. Increasing illicit manufacture of such substances has been reported in the Russian Federation. Clandestine laboratories manufacturing synthetic opioids (mainly 3-methylfentanyl) were detected in Moscow and St. Petersburg. 339. In 1995, a decrease in seizures of cocaine was observed in Europe as a whole. In contrast to that general trend, an increase in cocaine seizures was reported in eastern European countries and CIS member States, which have been used mainly as transit points (including seaports in Poland, Romania and the Russian Federation). (b) Psychotropic substances 340. The illicit manufacture and abuse of amphetamine and amphetamine derivatives continue to increase in Europe. 341. Illicit amphetamine laboratories have been detected in several countries. A major laboratory in the United Kingdom, with a manufacturing capacity of 600 kg of amphetamine per week, was detected in 1996 by monitoring glassware and laboratory equipment. According to ICPO/Interpol, the average increase in amphetamine seizures from 1994 to 1995 was about 18 per cent, but a greater increase was reported in some countries, including the two most important source countries, the Netherlands and Poland. From 1994 to 1995, the amount of amphetamine seized rose from 281 to 625 kg in the Netherlands and from 78 to 112 kg in Poland. Increasing amphetamine abuse has been reported in most countries in the region. 342. Seizures of precursors for amphetamine or amphetamine derivatives were reported in several countries. In Malta, 1 tonne of 1-phenyl-2-propanone on its way to Europe was seized, and in the Russian Federation, 200 kg of the same compound destined for the Netherlands were seized. 343. Ephedrine, another precursor for amphetamine, is also used in the illicit manufacture of methcathinone (ephedrone) in CIS member States but there have been reports on the abuse of ephedrine itself, mainly in the Russian Federation. Illicit methamphetamine manufacture has been reported in the Czech Republic and, for the first time, in Poland. 344. In 1995, there was a drastic increase in the illicit manufacture and abuse of MDMA ("ecstasy") in Europe. In the Netherlands, 20 clandestine laboratories were dismantled. The seizure of a laboratory and 543 kg of the substance was reported in the United Kingdom. In Austria, 10 times more "ecstasy" was seized in 1995 than in the previous year. Most MDMA is manufactured in the Netherlands but the existence of clandestine laboratories has also been reported in other countries primarily in central and eastern Europe. The Board notes with concern that there have been very few reports on the seizure of precursors for MDMA in Europe. Increasing abuse of MDMA and other hallucinogenic amphetamine derivatives, such as methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), N-ethylmethylenedioxyamphetamine (also known as MDEA or MDE), MBDB and brolamphetamine (DOB), has been reported in most countries in the region. There are also signs that such drugs are being smuggled out of Europe into other regions. In the opinion of the Board, the link of "ecstasy" to a certain style of pop music, the toleration by national authorities of ambiguous messages about the apparent virtues of "ecstasy" and even the use of its name throughout Europe for an energy drink launched in Liechtenstein may have contributed to the rapid spread of its abuse. 345. In 1995, increasing abuse of LSD was noted in many countries in Europe. LSD continues to be smuggled in bulk out of the United States and into countries in Europe, mainly the Netherlands, which, despite the intense interception activity of its national law enforcement services, remains a major LSD distribution centre. In 1995, Russian customs services reported the seizure of an extremely large amount (30 kg) of ergotamine and ergometrine that had originated in the United States, which might otherwise have been used to manufacture about 100 million doses of LSD. 346. There are few reports on the abuse of sedatives in Europe. In the opinion of the Board this problem continues to be underestimated in most countries. The abuse of barbiturates has been reported in Belarus and the Russian Federation. In January 1996, additional control measures to prevent the diversion of temazepam preparations were introduced in the United Kingdom, where the abuse of that benzodiazepine derivative is considered to be a significant problem, particularly in Scotland. Since then, large amounts of temazepam capsules from outside of the country have been seized by the British authorities. 347. The seizure of 6 tonnes of anthranilic acid, a precursor for methaqualone, was reported in 1995 in the Russian Federation. 6. Missions 348. A mission of the Board visited the three Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in July 1996. Compared with most other European countries, the level of drug abuse appears to be low in the Baltic States. The mission noted with appreciation the considerable progress made by all three States in establishing institutions and in developing mechanisms for the control of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. While the Board is satisfied with the extent of progress achieved so far, the national coordinating bodies of all the Baltic States should have a more important role in drug control policy. 349. The Board welcomes the recent accession of Estonia to the 1961 Convention and the 1971 Convention. The Board appreciates the efforts made by the Government in controlling the licit distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. The Board trusts that similar efforts will be made in the area of precursor control. 350. In Latvia, the Board has noted that the criminal code is currently being revised in order to incorporate provisions covering drug-related offences, including money-laundering. The Board welcomes the adoption of the legislation on precursor control in Latvia. The Board is convinced that the control of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, the main precursors for methcathinone (ephedrone), will be an effective preventive measure against the illicit manufacture of that drug. 351. The Board urges the Government of Lithuania to finalize, as soon as possible, the legislation on control of the licit distribution of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors that is currently being developed. 352. The Board is aware of the fact that the three Baltic States are faced with difficult economic problems that affect the ability of those States to deal with drug control problems. The Board encourages the Governments of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania to continue with the development of their national drug control system with the assistance of international and regional organizations. 353. During a visit to the European Commission, the Board discussed with commissioners the need to further strengthen and harmonize measures against drug abuse and trafficking within the European Union. The Board stresses the need to apply a number of additional measures in the area of precursor control, as reflected in various Economic and Social Council resolutions that were fully supported by the representatives of the European Union. Such additional measures, including the sharing of information on suspicious transactions, should also be applied by all member States of the European Union in order to attain the level of control already established in many other important chemical manufacturing and exporting countries. 354. A mission of the Board visited Hungary in June 1996. The Board appreciates that following the adoption of regulations against money-laundering,(55) precursor control legislation was adopted in 1996 in that country, in line with the provisions of the 1988 Convention. 355. At the same time, the Board notes with concern the irregularities in the functioning of controls over the licit manufacture of and international trade in narcotic drugs that have recently occurred in Hungary, including gaps in the traditionally exemplary cooperation of its Government with the Board. The Board regrets that the continuity of the functioning of the national drug control administration was not ensured by the Government of Hungary. The Board notes with satisfaction that, following its mission, the Government has decided to allocate the necessary human and financial resources to the Ministry of Welfare for the establishment of an adequate administrative structure for its national drug control authority. 356. The Board hopes that, following the privatization of the manufacture of narcotic drugs, the Government of Hungary will take the necessary steps to fulfil its increased control responsibilities. That will include the establishment of governmental control over poppy straw production in conformity with the provisions of the 1961 Convention, which was carried out in the past by a State-owned enterprise. 357. The Netherlands has been a site of major illicit trafficking in cocaine and cannabis, as well as a major manufacturing and trafficking centre for several psychotropic substances (see paragraph 344, above). Large-scale illicit cultivation of cannabis is also taking place. The geographical position of the Netherlands, its economic structure, the opening of borders in Europe and some elements of its policy have contributed to that situation. At the request of the Government, a mission of the Board visited the Netherlands in September 1996. The Government and Parliament in 1995 and 1996 reviewed the national drug policy, concluding that it had been successful from the point of view of health but had had a number of negative consequences for the Netherlands and other countries. The Board appreciates the recent commitment of the Government to address those consequences with a more stringent policy and in cooperation with other Governments. The Board notes with satisfaction that government officials are conscious of the importance of maintaining the existing international consensus on drug control issues and are against the adoption of unilateral measures which are not in line with such consensus. 358. In particular, the Board notes that special emphasis will henceforth be placed on combating the illicit manufacture of trafficking in and abuse of synthetic stimulants, as well as large-scale hydroponic cultivation of cannabis in the Netherlands. Noting the increased prevalence of cannabis abuse in the Netherlands, the Board is following with interest the specially targeted prevention campaign on the health damages produced by that narcotic drug. 359. While the Board has taken note that the Government of the Netherlands is determined not to allow henceforth a permissive attitude vis-à-vis certain promotional activities of coffee shops and that their number has already been reduced significantly, the Board reaffirms its position that the toleration of coffee shops, buying, stocking and selling cannabis products for non-medical use does not conform with the provisions of the 1961 Convention. The Board supports the view of the Government that the opening of municipality-run establishments is not a way to implement the new, more stringent policy, since it would be a further step in the direction of legalization, which is rejected by the Government. 360. While truly comparable abuse prevalence data are not yet available, even among European countries, the Government of the Netherlands concluded from the findings of studies that prevalence of heroin abuse in the Netherlands is relatively low and that the level of cannabis abuse is not significantly higher than in other European countries and is much lower than in North America. In addition, the heroin abuse population is rapidly ageing in the Netherlands. 361. In order to provide a sounder basis for drug policies, the Board counts on the Government of the Netherlands and other Governments of States members of the European Union to harmonize data collection and evaluation at the European level within the framework of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 362. The Board will follow closely the developments and will maintain its excellent dialogue with the Government of the Netherlands. 363. A mission of the Board visited the Republic of Moldova in September 1996 to assess the drug situation in that country. The Board, aware of the financial and technical difficulties encountered by the authorities and the growing abuse and illicit trafficking in that country, takes note with satisfaction of the willingness of the Government to take the necessary steps to improve its controls and of the several administrative and legislative initiatives already being undertaken. The Board expects that the new drug legislation, drafted with the assistance of UNDCP, will receive parliamentary approval and will enhance the capability of the Government to implement more effective drug control. 364. In June 1996, a mission of the Board visited Slovakia. The abuse of heroin, which was extremely limited until the early 1990s, has been increasing rapidly, especially among the youth. The abuse of cannabis is also on the increase. Slovakia is used as a transit State by heroin traffickers operating along the Balkan route. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government of Slovakia has elaborated a comprehensive anti-drug programme and has created the basic institutional framework for its implementation. The Board invites the Government to expedite the legislative process for the introduction of the new legislation for the control of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursor chemicals. The Board encourages the Government to strengthen its efforts in the prevention of drug abuse, as well as in the treatment, rehabilitation and social reintegration of drug addicts. The Board trusts that the Government will shortly implement its plans to provide additional resources to the administrative services responsible for the control of the licit movement of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors. 1. Major drug problems 365. Most drug problems in Oceania have been reported in Australia and New Zealand. The Pacific island countries do not appear to be seriously affected by illicit drug production, trafficking and abuse, the exceptions being a few countries where illicit cannabis cultivation takes place or whose territories are used as transit points for illicit drug trafficking. 2. Treaty adherence 366. Of the 14 States in Oceania, only 8 are parties to the 1961 Convention and 7 are parties to the 1971 Convention. Since the last report of the Board was published, Tonga has acceded to the 1988 Convention; only 3 States in the region are parties to that Convention. 3. Regional cooperation 367. The Pacific Islands Law Officers Meeting, a subsidiary body of the South Pacific Forum, is currently putting in place a legal framework for the harmonization of drug laws, regulations against money-laundering, and extradition in the region. The Board encourages States in the region to approve and implement those laws as soon as possible. The Board greatly appreciates the assistance given by the Governments of Australia and New Zealand and UNDCP to Pacific island countries in the field of law enforcement and invites them to continue with the training of professionals. 4. National legislation, policy and action 368. The Board appreciates the adoption of a new law against money-laundering in New Zealand and urges the Government of that country to develop appropriate legislation for precursor control and to ratify the 1988 Convention. The Board welcomes the progress made in the development of legislation in Papua New Guinea and hopes that its adoption will enable the Government to ratify the 1988 Convention. 369. Following the strengthening of laws and action against money-laundering in Australia and, recently, in New Zealand, money-launderers appear to be exploiting the bank secrecy laws of some small Pacific islands. The Board invites those States to strengthen their action against money-laundering. 5. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse (a) Narcotic drugs 370. Cannabis grows wild in several countries in Oceania and it is illicitly cultivated in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa. There are contradictory reports in respect of the THC content of local cannabis varieties. The Board reiterates the necessity for authorities of those countries to determine the THC content of cannabis by systematically analysing authentic samples. Cannabis cultivation, including hydroponic cultivation, also takes place in Australia and New Zealand. The manufacture of cannabis oil has been reported in Australia. 371. Cannabis is the most widespread drug of abuse in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. According to the Government of Australia, 15 per cent of the male population and 7 per cent of the female population are smoking cannabis on a weekly basis. 372. Only sporadic cases of abuse of cocaine or heroin have been reported in countries of the region, except Australia, where the seriousness of the extent of heroin abuse is clearly reflected in the fact that there were more than 500 heroin-related deaths recorded in 1995. (b) Psychotropic substances 373. The illicit manufacture of amphetamine derivatives has been reported in Australia. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine (in tablet form) have been used as precursors for methamphetamine. Following the strengthening of controls over those precursors, clandestine manufacturers started to procure other compounds (such as benzyl cyanide) used as precursors for amphetamines. Armed robberies have also been committed to procure precursors for methamphetamine. 374. The clandestine manufacture of methcathinone has also been detected in Australia. 375. The increasing abuse of stimulants (mainly methamphetamine), hallucinogenic amphetamine derivatives (MDMA, paramethylamphetamine (PMA) etc.) and LSD has been noted in Australia; however, there have also been reports on such abuse in New Zealand. A large proportion of the hallucinogens reportedly originate in European countries or in the United States. 6. Mission 376. In January 1996, a mission of the Board visited New Zealand. Cannabis is by far the most widely abused drug in New Zealand. It grows wild in the country and is illegally cultivated especially in forests, where cultivation is difficult to detect. While limited, some psychotropic substances continue to be abused and the Ministry of Health maintains a system of surveillance using computerized databases to monitor prescription and sales patterns. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government has resumed its cooperation with the Board with regard to the international control of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. The Board urges the Government to introduce the necessary amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act and to apply the control measures of the 1971 Convention to all psychotropic substances. The Board invites the Government to speed up the legislative process for the introduction of the control of precursor chemicals and encourages the Government to accede to the 1988 Convention. (Signed) Oskar Schroeder (Signed) António Lourenço Martins (Signed) Herbert Schaepe Vienna, 15 November 1996
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