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III. ANALYSIS OF THE WORLD SITUATIONMajor developments 164. Despite some eradication efforts and significant seizures in some countries in Africa, the region remains a major supplier of cannabis and cannabis resin to domestic illicit markets and to Europe. More recently, cannabis from Africa has also been finding its way to North America. 165. Several seaports and airports in Africa have become major transit centres for cocaine from South America destined for Europe and for heroin from Asia destined for Europe and North America. 166. Drug abuse is on the increase, particularly in big cities in Africa. Cannabis remains the main drug of abuse. The abuse of psychotropic substances (stimulants and sedatives) has been reported in a number of countries. The abuse of cocaine and heroin has emerged mainly in the proximity of seaports used by illicit traffickers for the trans-shipment of those drugs. There is a need for a study to be carried out on the drug abuse situation in the region. 167. The medical consumption levels of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances are low in most countries in the region. There is a need to increase the quantities of such drugs and substances to be made available to meet medical needs. Treaty adherence 168. Since the last report of the Board was published, Benin has become a party to the 1988 Convention. Of the 53 States in Africa, 43 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 41 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 37 are parties to the 1988 Convention. 169. The Board urges the Governments of Angola, Central African Republic, Comoros, Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea and Namibia, which are not parties to any of the three main international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties. Regional cooperation 170. The Board appreciates the adoption of a political declaration and a plan of action (for the period 1997-2001) by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) at the conference of ministers responsible for coordination of drug control activities in western Africa held at Praia from 5 to 9 May 1997 and the subsequent approval of those documents by the ECOWAS conference of heads of State and Government held at Abuja in August 1997. 171. The Board notes with satisfaction that the member States of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) are considering an action plan that is necessary for the implementation of the protocol on combating illicit drug trafficking in SADC that was ratified in August 1996.(21) National legislation, policy and action 172. The Board welcomes the adoption of national drug control laws in Benin, Ethiopia, Gabon, Madagascar and Senegal and urges the other African countries that have received legal assistance from UNDCP to speed up the process of the adoption of adequate drug control legislation. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 173. Cannabis grows wild and is illicitly cultivated in many African countries. South Africa is a large producer of cannabis. The eradication of more than 230 million cannabis plants was reported in Egypt in 1996. Morocco remains one of the world's largest producers of cannabis resin; in 1996, more than 16,000 illicit drug trafficking cases were prosecuted in that country and 38.5 tonnes of cannabis and 65 tonnes of cannabis resin, destined for black markets in Europe, were seized by Moroccan law enforcement services. Large amounts of cannabis are produced in western Africa for illicit trafficking; in Senegal, it is suspected that new hybrid cannabis varieties have been introduced that have a higher tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content than the local varieties. African seaports are frequently used by illicit traffickers for the trans-shipment of cannabis resin from Asia to Europe or North America. 174. Widespread cannabis abuse has been reported in every subregion in Africa. 175. Illicit opium poppy cultivation was reported only in Egypt, where 3.6 billion poppy plants were eradicated in 1996. Cases involving heroin abuse have been reported in some countries in western Africa. Increasing heroin abuse was reported in big cities in Kenya. 176. African countries have become major centres for trans-shipping cocaine from South America to Europe and for trans-shipping heroin from Asia to Europe and North America. 177. Cocaine abuse is on the increase mainly in some big cities in western Africa having direct flight connections with cities in Brazil. The manufacture of "crack" (cocaine base) from South American cocaine in clandestine laboratories has been reported in Senegal and South Africa. "Crack" is reportedly becoming available in an increasing number of countries in western Africa. 178. The Board welcomes the fact that rapid assessment studies similar to those carried out in 1994 and 1995 first in Kenya and then in Ethiopia will be conducted by UNDCP consultants in other countries in the region. Psychotropic substances 179. There are continuing reports on the illicit traffic in and abuse of stimulants (ephedrine, pemoline, amphetamine and amphetamine derivatives) from several countries in the region, mainly in western Africa. The Board, in its report for 1996,(22) drew attention to the fact that the quantities of ephedrine imported by some African States seemed to be excessive. The import of such large amounts of ephedrine has continued; for example, in 1996, over 4 tonnes of ephedrine were imported into Sierra Leone from one Asian country alone and, in 1997, orders of ephedrine totalling over 5.6 tonnes were placed from Sierra Leone, with the consent of the national competent authorities. The Board urges Governments in Africa to evaluate their real medical needs for ephedrine and invites WHO to assist them in the fulfilment of that task. 180. Significant seizures of benzodiazepines, mainly diazepam, seem to indicate the abuse of sedatives in Africa. The Board reiterates its appeal to Governments in the region to undertake a study and an assessment of the drug abuse situation in their countries, with the assistance of international organizations. Missions 181. A mission of the Board visited Angola in June 1997. The Board noted that a draft law to replace a decree dating from the time when Angola was a Portuguese colony has been approved at the ministerial level and that the parliament is expected to pass the law at the end of 1997. An interministerial commission against drugs was established in 1991, under the chairmanship of the vice-minister of justice, to deal with legislative issues and preventive and control measures. 182. Angola is a major centre for the trans-shipment of cocaine. Direct flights connecting Luanda with Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon are frequently used for the transportation of illicit drugs. African drug trafficking organizations took advantage of the civil war in order to expand their operations in Angola. The Board encourages the Government of Angola to strengthen customs controls at its airports and seaports, as well as the control of its border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo,(1) and to request international assistance to that end. 183. As a consequence of the illicit transit traffic in cocaine, the abuse of that drug is on the rise in Angola. As there are no statistics on drug abuse in Angola, the Board encourages the Government to undertake an assessment of the drug abuse situation and to develop prevention programmes. 184. A mission of the Board visited Mozambique in June 1997. The Board invites the Government to forward to the Secretary-General the instruments of accession to the three international drug control treaties, which were approved by the Mozambican parliament. A new law on the control of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances was adopted in 1997. 185. The main seaports of Mozambique are used by illicit traffickers as transit points for transporting drugs, mainly drugs destined for South Africa. There is a lack of controls along the long coast of Mozambique. The Board welcomes the decision of the Government of that country to establish a system for the control of all seaports and the railway network, which constitutes an important link to the neighbouring landlocked countries (Botswana, Malawi, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe). The Board hopes that the system will be implemented soon. 186. A mission of the Board visited Nigeria in September 1997. The Board appreciates the strengthening of the import authorization system for psychotropic substances in Nigeria and the increased cooperation of the competent authorities of that country with those of exporting countries and with the Board. Those developments have contributed to the prevention of the diversion of significant amounts of psychotropic substances into illicit channels. However, because of the tightening of controls over psychotropic substances in Nigeria, traffickers are using neighbouring countries as transit points for smuggling such substances into Nigeria. During the first eight months of 1997, 715 kg of diazepam, 170 kg of chlordiazepoxide and 260 kg of pemoline were seized by the Nigerian authorities; those were among the most significant seizures of diverted psychotropic substances worldwide. The Board recommends the Government to further strengthen the capacity and capabilities of its law enforcement services and to continue its cooperation with the Governments of neighbouring countries. 187. In Nigeria, as in other countries in Africa, the main drug of abuse continues to be cannabis, followed by psychotropic substances such as benzodiazepines and pemoline. 188. There are signs that, due to strengthened control measures, illicit traffickers are using seaports and airports in Nigeria for the trans-shipment of cocaine and heroin less frequently than in the past. 189. In order to prevent cannabis from being illicitly cultivated and smuggled into Europe, a cannabis eradication campaign was launched by the Government of Nigeria. From January 1994 to August 1997, over 60 tonnes of cannabis were destroyed. The Board notes with satisfaction the continuation of the eradication campaign. 190. In the opinion of the Board, the quantities of licit narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances imported into Nigeria do not cover the therapeutical needs of the country. The Board invites the Government of Nigeria to assess the real medical needs regarding narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and to allocate more resources to increase the quantities of such drugs and substances to be made available to meet those needs. At the same time, the Board urges the Government to strengthen the system of control over the pharmaceutical supply system in order to prevent the dispensing and sale of pharmaceutical preparations containing such drugs without medical prescription. 191. The Board welcomes the adoption of the Anti-Drug Strategy for the Hemisphere by the General Assembly of the Organization of American States at its twenty-seventh session, held at Lima in 1997. It was a clear demonstration of the awareness of Governments of the dimensions of the problem and of their intention to combat it at the regional level in a concerted manner. Central America and the Caribbean Major developments 192. Large-scale transit trafficking in cocaine from South America to North America continues. The determination of Central American countries, together with Mexico, to cooperate has been translated into practice, and coordinated action has led to major seizures. Similar results may be expected from the implementation in the Caribbean of the Barbados plan of action, adopted in May 1996.(23) 193. Legislative measures against money-laundering have been recently introduced in several Caribbean countries and more and more countries are joining the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force. The Board hopes that those developments will lead to successful results similar to those in Panama, since the Caribbean is affected by money-laundering operations. 194. The abuse of cocaine in Central America and the Caribbean (in some countries in the form of "crack") is spreading fast as a consequence of the large-scale transit traffic in cocaine. In the light of the increasing transit traffic in heroin, Governments in the region should undertake measures to prevent a spillover effect, which could lead to the spread of heroin abuse. Treaty adherence 195. Of the 20 States in Central America and the Caribbean, 15 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 14 are parties to the 1971 Convention and all are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board appreciates that all States in the region have acceded to the 1988 Convention, but reminds the Governments of States that are not parties to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention or both that the implementation of the provisions of those conventions is a prerequisite for compliance with the 1988 Convention. Regional cooperation 196. In May 1997, a declaration was signed at San José, by the presidents of the seven Central American States, together with the Dominican Republic and the United States, committing those States to the development of an action plan to combat common problems related to drugs and crime. The elaboration of a common drug control strategy is in progress. 197. The Board notes with satisfaction that the adoption of the Barbados plan of action has been followed by a number of bilateral and multilateral law enforcement cooperation agreements, including several maritime cooperation agreements. Drug control strategies have been developed in 13 countries and 9 territories in the Caribbean. 198. At a summit meeting held in May 1997, the Governments of 12 Caribbean States, together with the Governments of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and the United States, signed an agreement called the Bridgetown declaration of principles. The agreement contains, inter alia, provisions for the promotion of demand reduction programmes, for action against corruption and money-laundering and for the improvement of criminal justice systems. 199. The Board notes with satisfaction that a regional narcotics law enforcement training centre was opened in Jamaica in 1996. National legislation, policy and action 200. The Board appreciates that several actions have been undertaken in the field of drug demand reduction, including the following: (a) A programme for the prevention of drug abuse in elementary schools is in progress in Costa Rica; (b) An epidemiological study on drug abuse was conducted among pupils 12-18 years old in Panama in November 1996. The principal drugs of abuse were cannabis, cocaine (basuco, cocaine hydrochloride and "crack") and heroin. The Board notes that national average lifetime prevalence of all drugs was below 1 per cent; however, drug abuse was increasing; (c) Integrated demand reduction projects are being conducted in the following States and Netherlands Antilles: Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Dominican Republic and Trinidad and Tobago. Similar projects are being planned for Belize, Haiti and Jamaica. 201. The Board regrets the lack of data on the drug abuse situation in most Caribbean countries. Several Governments are receiving international assistance for demand reduction projects; assessment of the drug abuse situation constitutes the starting point of such projects. The Board encourages Governments in the region to proceed with the establishment of a harmonized drug abuse surveillance system. 202. The Board welcomes the fact that some States in the region introduced measures against money-laundering, such as the following: (a) In conformity with the 1988 Convention, Belize, which recently became a party to that Convention, adopted comprehensive legislation against money-laundering in 1996 and became a member of the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force; (b) In Panama, efficient measures against money-laundering were introduced. The measures have already led to the first trials and sentences in money-laundering cases; (c) In December 1996, a bill to prevent money-laundering was adopted in Antigua and Barbuda, a country heavily affected by money-laundering operations; (d) In El Salvador, progress was made towards the development of legislation against money- laundering; (e) Guatemala and Nicaragua joined the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force. 203. The Board notes with concern that money-launderers continue to operate in the region, mainly in the Caribbean, where non-bank financial institutions are increasingly being used for money-laundering purposes as the banking system is being more closely scrutinized by the authorities. There is a need to extend the monitoring system to include institutions and companies beyond the banking system. 204. The Board welcomes the adoption of precursor control legislation in Antigua and Barbuda. 205. The Board notes with satisfaction that the new Government of Nicaragua has initiated the revision of the existing drug control legislation and the introduction of measures that are necessary for the implementation of the provisions of the 1988 Convention. In order to confront the rapidly growing problem of drug trafficking, the Board encourages the Government to strengthen the capacity of drug control services, particularly along the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua, and encourages the international community to assist the Government in those efforts. 206. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Governments of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras started the elaboration of national drug control master plans in September 1997. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 207. Cannabis continues to be cultivated for domestic abuse in most countries in Central America and the Caribbean. Eradication campaigns are regularly carried out in most countries in the Caribbean. Despite the decrease in cannabis seizures in Jamaica (from 54.6 tonnes in 1995 to 34.5 tonnes in 1996), the total amount of cannabis seized in the Caribbean rose from 127 tonnes in 1995 to 141 tonnes in 1996. Illicit cannabis cultivation in Nicaragua is concentrated in the northern part of the country; it supplies the illicit demand within the country and, to some extent, in other Central American countries. The only areas in Central America from which cannabis is smuggled out of the region are in the Peten rainforest, which is shared by Belize and Guatemala. Most of the cannabis smuggled out of the Caribbean originates in Jamaica and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. 208. Cannabis remains the most widely abused drug in the region. At the same time, the Board notes with satisfaction that, despite the activity of some groups in favour of the legalization of cannabis, 70 per cent of the participants in a survey in Barbados declared that cannabis should not be legalized. 209. Illicit poppy cultivation seems to have been significantly reduced in Guatemala, due to regular eradication efforts. 210. Only small amounts of heroin have been seized in the region, but seizures continue to rise and the Board is concerned that the increased smuggling of heroin through the Caribbean may have a spillover effect, leading to the propagation of its abuse, as has been the case with cocaine. 211. Illicit coca bush cultivation was reported only in Panama; 200 hectares of coca bush were eradicated in that country. 212. Major drug trafficking routes from South America to North America and Europe pass through the Caribbean. The Board hopes that the concerted action of the law enforcement services in the Caribbean will counteract the activity of drug traffickers operating in that subregion. 213. As a consequence of the illicit transit traffic, the abuse of "crack" is increasing in Central America. Its easy availability and low prices have contributed to the spread of its abuse in the region. Psychotropic substances 214. In larger urban centres in Central America, such as Panama City, methamphetamine abuse is on the increase. 215. Inadequate prescribing practices and insufficient controls are contributing to the spread of the abuse of pharmaceutical preparations containing psychotropic substances, mainly benzodiazepines such as diazepam. The Board reiterates its appeal to Governments in the region to strengthen the supervision and control over the prescribing, distribution and dispensing of psychotropic substances. Major developments 216. In North America, comprehensive national drug control programmes, covering many areas related to drug control, are being systematically carried out. Many of the law enforcement actions are conducted jointly. 217. The number of demand reduction programmes is increasing in the region. The funding of youth-oriented drug prevention programmes is becoming a priority issue. Efforts are being made in all three countries in the region to improve data collection methodologies. 218. The level of drug abuse is different in each of the three countries in North America: the last-month prevalence of illicit drug abuse is highest in the United States (6 per cent) and lowest in Mexico (0.45 per cent). The abuse of cannabis, cocaine, heroin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) among youth appears to be slightly increasing in Canada and the United States. 219. Despite significant seizures, cocaine and heroin continue to be smuggled on a large scale through the territory of Mexico. Methamphetamine continues to be clandestinely manufactured in Mexico and the United States and abused in Canada and the United States. Treaty adherence 220. All three States in North America are parties to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention. Regional cooperation 221. Cooperation in drug control matters has further developed in North America, mainly in the field of law enforcement. All three States in the region have concluded cooperation agreements with a number of other States and are playing active roles in international drug control programmes. 222. There is continuing cooperation between the three countries in the region, particularly between their law enforcement services. In 1996, Mexico and the United States increased their bilateral cooperation by, among other things, establishing a high-level contact group and an alliance for the coordination of activities involving the two countries in all aspects of drug control and related matters. 223. The Board appreciates that, in 1997, Mexico and the United States continued to initiate and conclude bilateral and multilateral agreements with other States in the Americas and elsewhere. National legislation, policy and action 224. The Board notes with satisfaction the continuation of drug prevention programmes conducted in Canada by non-governmental organizations, parent-teacher associations, sport clubs and law enforcement agencies. The programmes have focused mainly on youth. 225. The Board urges the Government of Canada to introduce the regulations necessary for the control of all psychotropic substances and precursors as provided for by the Controlled Drug and Substances Act, which was adopted in that country in June 1996.(24) 226. The Board appreciates the introduction in Mexico of a comprehensive strategy to combat illicit drug trafficking and related criminal activities, such as money-laundering and arms trafficking, and the adoption of a number of laws and regulations, as well as the action-oriented implementation of those regulatory measures. 227. The Board welcomes the strengthening of the Mexican authorities responsible for the investigation of cases involving drug trafficking and related matters and for the prosecution of drug traffickers. Those measures taken by the Government of Mexico have led to the arrest of over 11,000 persons from September 1996 to August 1997 for drug trafficking and related criminal activities. Those arrested included high-ranking government and military officials. 228. The Board appreciates that the Government of the United States is focusing increasingly on demand reduction programmes, including campaigns against the glamorization of drug abuse by the media and entertainment industry. 229. The Board welcomes a number of initiatives in the United States. For example, the national drug control strategy for 1997 includes a 10-year programme of action covering all aspects of the drug problem (prevention, education, treatment, research, law enforcement etc.). Initiatives of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration of the United States Department of Health and Human Services against substance abuse among youth, including a mass media campaign and data collection, have been expanded and the funding of a programme for safe and drug-free schools has been increased. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 230. In the United States, a significant proportion of the illicit cannabis supply is produced locally. In that country, cannabis is cultivated mainly indoors using hydroponics; in 1996, about 3,800 such cases were detected. Large amounts of cannabis are smuggled into the United States, mostly out of Mexico, where 22,760 hectares of cannabis were destroyed and more than 1,000 tonnes of cannabis were seized in 1996. 231. Cannabis remains the most widely abused drug in North America. In the United States, there were about 10 million last month abusers of cannabis in 1996. 232. Mexico continued its campaign to eradicate a significant portion of the illicit opium poppy cultivation sites on its territory, destroying about 14,600 hectares of opium poppy in 1996. In the same year, Mexican law enforcement services seized 363 kg of heroin, an increase of almost 90 per cent over 1995; Mexican heroin (known as "black tar") is smuggled into the western states in the United States. The share of south-east Asian heroin on the black market in the United States, which dominated that market in the late 1980s and early 1990s, is declining. Most of the heroin seized in the United States seems to be of Colombian origin. The average purity of the heroin sold on the street significantly increased in the United States, from 7 per cent 10 years ago to 26 per cent in 1991 and 36 per cent in 1996. The share of heroin of high (90 per cent) purity, which can be snorted, sniffed or smoked more easily than adulterated heroin, is increasing. 233. In the United States, the easy availability of heroin of high purity seems to have been a factor contributing to the significant increase in the number of new heroin abusers from 1992 to 1996. The new heroin abusers were mainly teenagers and young adults. 234. Nearly 24 tonnes of cocaine were seized by the Mexican authorities in 1996. Mexico is on one of the main routes used to smuggle cocaine out of South America and into the United States, where 123 tonnes of that drug were seized in 1996, compared with 109 tonnes in 1995. 235. In the United States, there were no major changes in the level of cocaine abuse in 1996. According to the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, the last-month prevalence of cocaine abuse was 0.8 per cent in the household population aged 12 years and older (1.7 million persons). However, among teenagers the perception of cocaine as risky is diminishing; consequently, the danger of a future increase in cocaine abuse among youth is real. 236. According to the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, in 1996, the last-month prevalence of abuse of illicit drugs was 6 per cent in the household population aged 12 years and older in the United States. That figure is 50 per cent lower than the estimate in 1979. Important drug-abusing segments of the population, however, are not covered by the Survey. Psychotropic substances 237. In the United States, the abuse of methamphetamine seems to be growing despite the introduction of a comprehensive law enforcement, treatment and prevention strategy against such abuse.(25) Methamphetamine is illicitly manufactured not only in the United States, but also in Mexico, where 172 kg of methamphetamine and 6.7 tonnes of ephedrine (sufficient to manufacture a similar quantity of methamphetamine) were seized in 1996. In the United States, significant amounts of methamphetamine were seized in 1996 along the border with Mexico and elsewhere while being transported in vehicles. The abuse of methamphetamine and other stimulants has also been reported in Canada. 238. In the United States, as a consequence of the large-scale prescribing of methylphenidate to children and its easy availability, the abuse of that substance appears to be on the rise. The Board reiterates its concern in respect of the dangers of the overprescribing and widespread use of methylphenidate (see paragraphs 151-154, above).(26) 239. Stimulants are widely used as appetite suppressants (anorectics) in the United States. The Board welcomes the withdrawal from the United States market of fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine, which are anorectics not under international control. This action, which was initiated by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States, led to the discontinuation of the use of fenfluramine in combination with phentermine, a treatment commonly referred to as "phen/fen". The Board had drawn attention to the risks connected with the use of that product in its report for 1996.(27) The Board hopes that the action taken in the United States will be followed by the revision of the large-scale prescribing of stimulants for weight control in that country. 240. Some increase in the abuse of hallucinogens, mainly LSD, has been reported in Canada and the United States. Several LSD laboratories were dismantled and the equivalent of about 370,000 doses of LSD were seized in the United States in 1996. 241. The abuse of sedatives (benzodiazepines and barbiturates) continues in Canada and the United States. The increasing availability and abuse of flunitrazepam are of great concern to the authorities of the United States. Flunitrazepam is not marketed in the United States; it is smuggled into that country out of other countries in the Americas.(28) Major developments 242. Joint transborder operations have led to the seizure of substantial amounts of drugs and to the dismantling of trafficking organizations in South America. Despite the geographical obstacles in the region, a more comprehensive mechanism for the exchange of information and better coordination of law enforcement activities could enhance efforts to combat illicit drug trafficking, particularly in the Amazon and Paraná basins. 243. Most States in the region concluded a number of bilateral and multilateral mutual assistance agreements and further agreements are under consideration. 244. In several countries, laws against money-laundering have been adopted in the last few years; however, more concrete regulations and improved organizational systems must be put in place in order to achieve more practical results. 245. Illicit coca bush cultivation, coca leaf production and manufacture of and trafficking in coca derivatives continue in South America. The abuse of coca base, coca paste, cocaine hydrochloride and "crack" is spreading in the region. 246. Non-compliance with national regulations concerning the manufacture, prescribing and sale of psychotropic substances continues in several countries in South America. The Board again urges Governments in the region to ensure the enforcement of regulatory controls. 247. National drug abuse surveys have been conducted recently in Bolivia, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador; similar surveys are needed in other countries in the region. Treaty adherence 248. The Board notes with satisfaction that, with the exception of Guyana, which is not a party to the 1961 Convention, all States in South America are parties to the three international drug control treaties. Regional cooperation 249. The Board appreciates that increasing transborder operations carried out in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay led to the seizure in 1996 of cannabis and cocaine in amounts that were much more substantial than in any previous year. Joint law enforcement operations resulted in the dismantling of local drug trafficking gangs, particularly in the border areas between Bolivia, Brazil and Peru and between Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay in 1996 and 1997. 250. The Board welcomes the fact that, in 1996 and 1997, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru and Uruguay held joint seminars on prevention, control of chemicals, money-laundering and the role of the judicial system and are planning to organize similar seminars. 251. The Board appreciates that, in the last two years, legislation against money-laundering has been enacted in several countries in the region and multilateral conferences and seminars on the subject have taken place. The Board urges Governments to strengthen their institutional structures and ensure that the financial and technical resources necessary for the prevention and/or detection of money-laundering operations are provided. A proliferation of casinos has been reported in several countries. The Board draws the attention of Governments in the region to the risk of casinos being used as money-laundering "front" companies.*
252. The Board recommends Governments in the region to define clear rules on the management, use and final destination of seized and confiscated assets. The lack of such rules may lead to controversies and discussions among governmental agencies, as has happened already in some countries. National legislation, policy and action 253. The Board trusts that in Argentina the new federal plan will contribute to the improvement of the coordination of government action in the field of drug control. The Board appreciates that in 1996 new precursor regulations were adopted in Argentina but regrets that the adoption of the bill against money-laundering is still pending. 254. The Board, in its report for 1996,(29) acknowledged the adoption of legislation on precursors in Chile. It notes with satisfaction that, despite the delay in introducing complementary regulatory controls, the voluntary cooperation of the industry with the government authorities has already led to results.(30) 255. The Board notes with satisfaction that in Bolivia, the prosecution of cases involving money- laundering, including the confiscation of assets, has been made possible by the amendment of the penal code. It hopes that the new law on pharmaceuticals will improve controls over the import, distribution and dispensing of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances for medical purposes. 256. The Board regrets that in Brazil money-laundering is still not considered a crime. It urges the Government to speed up the long-pending adoption of regulations against drug-related money-laundering. 257. The Board welcomes the coming into force of new legislation in Colombia on money-laundering and on increasing prison terms and fines for major drug traffickers, as well as the establishment of a new agency responsible for formulating official drug control policy and supervising its implementation. The adoption in 1996 of a new law on the confiscation of assets derived from criminal activities, together with vigorous efforts by the Government to implement that law, is a positive development. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 258. Cannabis, the principal drug of abuse in South America, continues to be cultivated for international trafficking in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Paraguay and Suriname. In 1996, about 3.7 million cannabis plants were eradicated in Brazil, about 30 per cent more than in 1995. 259. Large-scale illicit poppy cultivation continues in Colombia and has spread to the Venezuelan part of the Perija mountain range. In Colombia, 81 kg of heroin were seized in 1996 and 87.5 kg were seized during the first half of 1997, but recent estimates on the extent of opium production and heroin manufacture are not available. Most of the heroin manufactured in clandestine laboratories in Colombia is smuggled into the United States; however, heroin abuse, previously unknown in Colombia, is taking place in Colombian ports and is also being reported in several cities in Brazil. 260. The Board notes with concern that information gaps and contradictory reports have hindered the assessment of the current status of illicit cultivation of narcotic crops in the region. 261. Large-scale illicit coca bush cultivation continues in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. Peru remains the largest producer of coca leaves and Colombia is the second largest. Illicit cultivation of the epadú variety of coca bush (Erythroxylon coca var. ipadu) seems to be increasing in Brazil, mainly in areas that are close to its borders with Colombia and Peru. Colombia continued its large-scale illicit crop eradication programme throughout 1997. 262. The illicit manufacture of coca base, coca paste and cocaine hydrochloride continues in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. In the past, large amounts of coca base and coca paste were smuggled into Colombia out of Bolivia and Peru. Clandestine laboratories in Colombia appear to be using mostly locally produced coca base or coca paste for the manufacture of cocaine hydrochloride. That has led to a significant reduction in the import of raw materials from Bolivia and Peru, where a significant drop in the price of coca leaves and an expansion in the manufacturing capacity of clandestine cocaine laboratories have been reported. In the opinion of the Board, the increasing availability of the solvents and chemicals needed for illicit cocaine manufacture could lead to an increase in clandestine cocaine manufacture in Brazil. 263. In the first half of 1997, a significant increase in cocaine seizures was reported in Colombia: the amount of cocaine seized in that period was almost the same as the amount seized in the entire year 1996. 264. Mainly because of the migration and changing lifestyle of the traditional coca-leaf-chewing population in Bolivia and Peru, that practice appears to be on the decrease. 265. The abuse of coca base and cocaine hydrochloride is increasing in several countries in the region; in many countries a significant increase in cases involving "crack" abuse has been reported. Easy availability and low prices have contributed to the popularity of coca paste and "crack". In the last years, two consecutive drug abuse surveys were conducted in four countries in the region. In Bolivia and Colombia, drug abuse surveys conducted in 1992 and 1996 showed that, although the level of drug abuse is still relatively low, there have been significant increases, mainly as a consequence of the increasing cocaine abuse. In Bolivia, for example, the annual prevalence of cocaine abuse increased from 0.2 per cent to 1.2 per cent from 1992 to 1996. In Chile, however, annual prevalence of the abuse of illicit drugs remained stable (at 4.3 per cent) and monthly prevalence decreased from 2.02 per cent to 1.36 per cent from 1994 to 1996. In Ecuador, due to methodological differences, the results of the two surveys conducted in 1992 and 1995 are not comparable, but lifetime prevalence of illicit drug abuse was relatively low (5.2 per cent) in 1995.*
Psychotropic substances 266. In many South American countries, regulations concerning the prescribing and dispensing of psychotropic substances are not applied. The Board trusts that the implementation of existing legislation will allow the Government of Brazil to improve its system of control over the manufacture of, trade in and distribution of pharmaceutical products, particularly those containing psychotropic substances. In Brazil, several cases involving the diversion of psychotropic substances from licit to illicit channels have recently been discovered, more than 300 unauthorized pharmaceutical laboratories have been detected and, despite the adoption of new regulations with respect to the control of anorectics, the dispensing of such amphetamine-type stimulants has continued (see paragraph 155, above). 267. Due to inadequate control and monitoring, information on the abuse of sedatives is scarce. The Board recommends that the Governments of countries in the region should systematically collect data and assess the situation in respect of sedatives. Missions 268. In July 1997, the Board sent a mission to Ecuador. The Board notes with satisfaction that, since the adoption of its main legislation on narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in 1990, the Government has continually updated its legal framework by, among other things, introducing regulations on seizure, confiscation and use of assets, money-laundering, judicial cooperation and precursor control. 269. The establishment in Ecuador of Consejo Nacional de Control de Sustancias, Estupefacientes y Psicotrópicas (CONSEP), the national drug control commission, is a positive development. The Board trusts that the matter concerning the remaining overlapping responsibilities of CONSEP and other governmental agencies will soon be resolved. 270. The Board welcomes the recent establishment in Ecuador of a monitoring system for drug abuse and a system for the prevention of money-laundering by monitoring the flow of capital above 10,000 United States dollars per client and month. 271. The extent of illicit drug production and trafficking in Ecuador is much lower than in some other South American countries; consequently, the full implementation of the new regulations and the adequate functioning of the new institutions in Ecuador would be of great preventive value. Those goals could be better achieved with some assistance from the international community. 272. In July 1997, the Board sent a mission to Peru. In the opinion of the Board, the establishment in Peru of Comisión de la Lucha contra el Consumo de Drogas (CONTRADROGAS), the national drug control commission, has greatly improved coordination and the exchange of information between agencies. The Board considers the high political level of the composition of CONTRADROGAS to be a clear indication of the priority given by the Government to drug control issues. The Board hopes that the responsibilities of CONTRADROGAS and Oficina Ejecutiva de Control de Drogas (OFECOD), the executive office for drug control, will be coordinated. 273. The Board appreciates the efforts by the Government of Peru to update the national legal framework. However, the Board notes with concern that, despite its previous calls, national policy and legislation regarding coca bush cultivation and coca leaf production and distribution are not in line with the provisions of the 1961 Convention. 274. As recommended by the Board in the past, the Government of Peru should strengthen the authorities in charge of controlling licit activities connected with narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. Major developments 275. Illicit opium poppy cultivation, opium production, heroin manufacture and opiate trafficking remain major drug problems in south-east Asia, particularly in Myanmar. Heroin injecting is spreading in the region, particularly in some southern provinces of China. The illicit manufacture of and traffic in amphetamines, particularly methamphetamine, are on the rise in the region and the spread of methamphetamine abuse poses a major challenge to some Governments in the region. The prevalence of the abuse of methamphetamine and other amphetamine derivatives seems to be significantly lower in Japan and the Republic of Korea than in most European countries and the level of heroin and cocaine abuse remains very low despite the high purchasing power of their populations. The illicit traffic in acetic anhydride (used for the manufacture of heroin) and in ephedrine and pseudoephedrine (used for the production of methamphetamine) has continued in the region. Treaty adherence 276. In 1997, Indonesia and the Lao People's Democratic Republic acceded to the 1971 Convention and Singapore acceded to the 1988 Convention. Of the 15 States in the region, 12 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 11 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 7 are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board welcomes the preparatory steps undertaken by the Government of Viet Nam for accession to the three main international drug control treaties. The Board urges Cambodia and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, which are not parties to any of the international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties as soon as possible. The Board welcomes the withdrawal of the reservation by the Philippines on certain provisions of the 1988 Convention related to money-laundering and extradition. Regional cooperation 277. The Board welcomes the further development of the cooperation between Cambodia, China, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam in the field of drug control, including new arrangements for the exchange of intelligence, the training of professionals and demand reduction programmes. The Board appreciates the new bilateral agreement between the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Myanmar on border control and prevention of drug trafficking. 278. In the opinion of the Board, the establishment at Bangkok in February 1997 of the Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering, in which 13 countries in Asia and the Pacific are participating, and the agreement of that Group on the development of a regional plan of action constitute important steps in the fight against money-laundering. National legislation, policy and action 279. The Board expects that following the coming into force of a new drug law in Cambodia, the Government will accede to the three international drug control treaties. 280. The Board welcomes the adoption of a law on psychotropic substances in Indonesia. 281. The Board notes with satisfaction the coming into force of a new regulation on the tracing, freezing and confiscation of the proceeds of drug trafficking in Brunei Darussalam. 282. The Board urges the Government of Thailand to enact the draft bill on measures against money-laundering as soon as possible. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 283. Cannabis grows wild in several countries in the region and is also cultivated in many south-east Asian countries. Large-scale cannabis cultivation has been reported in the Philippines. Substantial amounts of cannabis originating in Cambodia were seized in the region, as well as in Australia and countries in Africa and Europe. Cannabis is widely abused in countries in south-east Asia. 284. In Myanmar, opium poppy is grown illicitly as a major cash crop by farmers in the hilly border areas. The Board welcomes the UNDCP-funded project for the alternative development of one of those areas, the Wa area of eastern Shan State in Myanmar, which is to be implemented in close cooperation with China. There are no reliable estimates of opium production in Myanmar, which remains one of the largest opium producers in the world. The levels of poppy cultivation and opium production in other south-east Asian countries are not comparable to those in Myanmar; the levels seem to have remained low in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand and Viet Nam. 285. Heroin is manufactured on a large scale in south-east Asia, mainly in Myanmar. Worldwide seizures of heroin originating in the region are declining. Many of the consignments of acetic anhydride (used for the manufacture of heroin) that were seized in Myanmar were reported to have been smuggled into that country out of China. The territories of Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam, as well as some southern provinces of China, particularly Guangdong, are used as transit points and storage places for heroin destined to be smuggled into Europe and North America. 286. Although the number of opium abusers is falling in south-east Asia, the abuse of heroin is on the rise. The practice of injecting heroin is increasing in certain parts of China, particularly in Yunnan Province. The spread of HIV infection among injecting drug abusers is of particular concern in Viet Nam, as well as in some parts of Myanmar. Psychotropic substances 287. The increasing illicit manufacture of, traffic in and abuse of amphetamines, particularly methamphetamine, are major problems in the region. Seizure data indicate that illicit manufacture of methamphetamine is taking place mainly in China, but several clandestine laboratories have been detected in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar and other countries in the region. Ephedrine is used for the clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine in China or smuggled into neighbouring countries. China has been efficiently controlling licit exports of ephedrine, has prevented the diversion of several large consignments of that precursor and is increasing its efforts to curb the diversion of that precursor into illicit domestic channels. Reacting to the increasing spread of methamphetamine abuse, Thailand has tightened controls over the licit trade in ephedrine by withdrawing the ephedrine import licences of all private companies; as a result, the Food and Drug Administration of Thailand has become the only legal importer and distributor of ephedrine. Pseudoephedrine imports have been subjected to individual import certificates. 288. Although Japan and the Republic of Korea were able to clamp down on all illicit manufacturing capacities for methamphetamine some time ago, the abuse of methamphetamine remains a concern since it is spreading to increasingly younger segments of the population. 289. Seizures of MDMA ("ecstasy") of European origin were reported in several countries in the region. Missions 290. The Board sent a mission to Cambodia in February 1997. The Board noted with concern that drug trafficking activities originating in that country, in addition to transit activity, were increasing and that there were indications that money-laundering activities were also increasing. Strong measures against drug abuse and trafficking in neighbouring countries have led traffickers to move their operations to Cambodia, taking advantage of its weak legislative, enforcement and administrative structures and scarce resources resulting mainly from decades of war and political instability. International seizure reports indicate increasing illicit cultivation of cannabis and transit trafficking in heroin in Cambodia. The clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine is likely to take place. Attempts to import large quantities of ephedrine into the country for such illicit purposes must therefore be investigated by national authorities. 291. The Board notes with appreciation the coming into force of a comprehensive drug control law in Cambodia at the beginning of 1997. Therefore, Cambodia could become a party to the international drug control treaties. Efficient application of the new law, however, will require the strengthening of the organizational and administrative structures in the judicial and law enforcement areas, support from and close cooperation with neighbouring countries and the provision of bilateral and multilateral assistance. Police and health authorities should continue to cooperate closely with one another in order to close down hundreds of non-authorized pharmaceutical outlets, thereby preventing the misuse of pharmaceuticals in general and narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in particular. 292. The Board sent a mission to Indonesia in January 1997. The Board appreciates the efforts by the Government to bring the national legislation on drug control in line with the international drug control treaties, as well as the initiatives by the Government aimed at the consolidation, rationalization and coordination of all drug control activities. Although the level of drug abuse in Indonesia does not appear to be significant, the Board noted with concern that the abuse of psychotropic substances, particularly MDMA ("ecstasy") smuggled into the country out of the Netherlands, has spread among the younger segments of the population. The Board trusts that the Government of Indonesia will therefore strengthen its efforts to prevent drug abuse and encourages the Government to involve the community, as well as non-governmental organizations, in such programmes, paying special attention to youth, both in school and out of school. Following the prevention of the diversion of some exports of benzodiazepines into illicit channels in Indonesia, the Board invited the Government to investigate the extent of abuse of those psychotropic substances in that country. 293. The Board sent a mission to Viet Nam in January 1997. The Board is pleased to note that the Government of that country is in the process of acceding to the three international drug control treaties and that new drug control legislation is scheduled for adoption by the national assembly in 1997. The Board appreciates the strong commitment by the Government to addressing itself to drug problems and its efforts and achievements in the last few years in the eradication of illicit opium poppy cultivation. Drug trafficking and abuse are no longer issues limited to ethnic minorities but have developed into nation-wide problems. The Board appreciates the establishment of the national drug control committee to ensure effective leadership and coordination of the multisectoral and joint drug control efforts in Viet Nam. 294. The Board has received disquieting reports on the drug control situation in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Therefore, the Board expresses its concern that the Government of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea has not yet accepted its proposal, originally made in 1995, to send a mission to that country to study and clarify drug control issues. Major developments 295. Strict control measures and law enforcement action in India have curtailed the large-scale smuggling of methaqualone out of that country into African countries. Cooperation between national law enforcement authorities aimed at preventing the cross-border smuggling of drugs, including cooperation between India and Pakistan, has significantly increased in the region. The abuse of and traffic in codeine-based cough syrups and buprenorphine, diverted from licit channels, as well as cannabis and heroin, have continued in South Asia. International trade in psychotropic substances is under strict control in India; however, in the other countries in South Asia, either domestic trade, distribution and dispensing of those substances are not regulated or the regulations are not adequately implemented. India is also the only country in South Asia where the manufacture, export and import of precursors are regulated; their relatively free availability in other countries in the region might result in illicit manufacturers exploiting that situation. Treaty adherence 296. Of the six States in South Asia, four are parties to the 1961 Convention, three are parties to the 1971 Convention and five are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges the Government of Maldives, which is not a party to any of the international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties; the board notes that a draft law on drug abuse is being considered by a committee of the parliament in Maldives. Regional cooperation 297. The Board appreciates the role of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation and the Colombo Plan in the enhancement of regional cooperation in drug-related matters. 298. The Board notes with satisfaction the further development of the cooperation between the authorities of India and Pakistan in the field of drug control. New zonal offices have been opened and inter-agency task forces have been created to facilitate operations involving the border between India and Pakistan in response to a recent sharp increase in the illicit traffic in heroin and cannabis resin. The two States have agreed to cooperate with each other in carrying out financial investigations related to drug trafficking cases, in exchanging information on money-laundering activities, in establishing a mechanism for the quick exchange of information and in conducting controlled delivery operations and joint investigations. 299. The Board welcomes the decision taken by the Governments of China and India to start to cooperate closely with one another in drug control matters and encourages both Governments to build up the mechanisms necessary for such cooperation. National legislation, policy and action 300. The Board hopes that the adoption of the New Delhi Charter on Global Drugs Law by an international conference held in India in February 1997, will contribute to the harmonization of drug-related national legislation in the region and in other parts of the world. 301. The Board urges the Government of Nepal to speed up the adoption of five new draft laws related to drug control that were developed with UNDCP assistance. 302. The Board encourages the Government of India to speed up the updating of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (amendment) Act, which is needed to implement the provisions of the 1988 Convention, to which India is a party. The Board hopes that the draft bill on money-laundering and seizure of assets will be adopted soon in India. 303. India is the only country in South Asia where manufacture, export and import of precursors are regulated; the Board urges the other countries in the region to adopt adequate legislation on precursor control. 304. The Board welcomes the drug abuse prevention programmes introduced in some states in India, particularly in the north-eastern part of the country, where the incidence of heroin abuse cases is high. In the opinion of the Board, a central coordinating and monitoring body would enhance the development and implementation of a policy for drug demand reduction at the national level. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 305. Cannabis grows wild and is also illicitly cultivated in South Asia. In Sri Lanka, significant quantities of cannabis are used in traditional ayurvedic medicine; Sri Lankan authorities regularly conduct campaigns to eradicate illicit cannabis cultivation in remote jungle areas. Cannabis resin produced in Nepal is smuggled mainly into India. In Nepal, the number of seizures of cannabis and cannabis resin and the number of persons arrested for drug offences have increased since the beginning of the 1990s; however, the border of that country with India is virtually open, making the fight against illicit traffic in cannabis resin and other drugs more difficult. 306. Licit opium poppy cultivation and opium production take place under governmental control in India (see paragraph 140, above). There have been no reports on the seizure of Indian opium outside of India. Continued efforts by the Government of India have kept to a minimum the diversion of opium from licit cultivation and have limited illicit cultivation mainly to some northern areas of the country. Some of the morphine base illicitly manufactured in Pakistan is smuggled into India, where it is converted into heroin in clandestine laboratories (such as the ones dismantled in Gujarat and Maharashtra) or is smuggled into other countries. Heroin is also smuggled into India out of Pakistan and, to a lesser extent, out of Myanmar. Buprenorphine and cough syrups containing codeine are smuggled out of India, the manufacturing country, into Bangladesh and Nepal; the abuse of those products has continued in India, as well as in Bangladesh and Nepal. Psychotropic substances 307. The Board greatly appreciates the operation of an import/export authorization system covering all psychotropic substances and ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in India. This system and the close collaboration of the Government of India with the Board have prevented the diversion of very large amounts of psychotropic substances and ephedrine and pseudoephedrine into illicit markets. At the same time, efforts have continued to be made to strengthen controls over other precursors, such as those used in the illicit manufacture of amphetamine and amphetamine-type stimulants. The resulting successes have underlined the positive contribution of such efforts to global chemical control. The Board hopes that the current control systems will be maintained and expanded in the future. 308. A voluntary code of conduct of the industry proved to be a valuable supplement to governmental controls over acetic anhydride. The use of such a code for precursors of psychotropic substances would enhance the functioning of the precursor control system. The Board hopes that the Indian pharmaceutical and chemical industries will agree to such a code of conduct. 309. Increased regulatory and law enforcement action has reduced the large-scale smuggling of methaqualone out of India into countries in Africa. There has been a sharp decrease in methaqualone seizures in India, and seizures in African countries of methaqualone of Indian origin have become rare. 310. There have been very few reports on the abuse of psychotropic substances in South Asia. In Nepal, persons who formerly abused heroin have shifted to nitrazepam and other hypnotics because those drugs are less expensive, easier to obtain and perceived as less harmful than heroin. Mission 311. In January 1997, the Board sent a mission to Sri Lanka. The drug trafficking and abuse situation in that country has not deteriorated in recent years. Measures taken by the Government have contributed to the containment of the situation. 312. Although the Government has received no reports of any major abuse of psychotropic substances, the unregulated availability of those substances means that there is a risk of such abuse developing. Illicit drug traffickers might exploit inadequate controls over international trade by using companies in Sri Lanka to serve as intermediaries for the diversion of psychotropic substances into other countries. Therefore, the controls required under the 1971 Convention and related Economic and Social Council resolutions should be introduced without delay. In addition, the Board requests the Government of Sri Lanka to fully comply with the provisions of the 1961 Convention with regard to cannabis use. 313. No illicit manufacture of drugs appears to be taking place in Sri Lanka. The Board appreciates the efforts made to introduce controls over precursors, thereby preventing the use of Sri Lanka to channel chemicals into clandestine laboratories in other countries and preventing the development of clandestine manufacture in Sri Lanka. Major developments 314. The adherence to the three main international drug control treaties by the overwhelming majority of countries in West Asia, including most of the newly independent States in central Asia and the Caucasus, is a promising development. The determination of West Asian countries to cooperate with each other in the fight against illicit drug trafficking is being translated into a number of bilateral and multilateral agreements and cross-border operations. 315. In Afghanistan, due to civil war, political turmoil and lack of administrative structures, large-scale illicit opium poppy cultivation, opium production and heroin manufacture continue. Largely as a result of the increase of 25 per cent in the opium yield in 1997 in Afghanistan, opium production in south-west Asia now exceeds that in south-east Asia. A ban has recently been issued on poppy cultivation, opium production and heroin manufacture. For the time being, the extent to which the illicit traffic can be reduced depends mainly on the law enforcement services of neighbouring countries of Afghanistan and the extent to which they are able to stop, or at least hinder, the flow of illicit opium and morphine from Afghanistan into or through their territories. There are also some clandestine heroin laboratories operating in Afghanistan, but most are in other countries in the region. In Pakistan, the easy availability and low prices of heroin have resulted in its abuse becoming even more widespread than before. 316. The illicit cultivation and abuse of cannabis are also widespread in the region. Afghanistan is one of the largest producers of cannabis resin in the world. There is a high risk that in central Asia the current levels of illicit drug production, trafficking and abuse will significantly increase as a consequence of the increasing local production of illicit cannabis and opium and the influx of large amounts of cannabis resin, opium and morphine originating in Afghanistan. 317. The lack of systems for the prevention and/or detection of money-laundering operations is a major problem in several countries in the region. Treaty adherence 318. Since the last report of the Board was published, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan have acceded to the 1961 Convention, Kazakhstan, Oman and Tajikistan have acceded to the 197l Convention and Kazakhstan has acceded to the 1988 Convention. Of the 24 States in West Asia, 22 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 21 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 20 are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges the Government of Georgia, which is not a party to any of the international drug control treaties, to accede to those treaties. 319. The Board, in its report for 1996,(31) expressed its concern over the far-reaching reservations made in 1996 by Lebanon and the Philippines on provisions related to measures against money-laundering in the 1988 Convention. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government of the Philippines has withdrawn its reservations (see paragraph 276, above) and urges the Government of Lebanon to follow that example. Several Governments have objected to the reservations made by Lebanon because those reservations are incompatible with the objective and purpose of the 1988 Convention and, consequently, they are not in conformity with international laws and the provisions of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties.(32) Regional cooperation 320. The Board notes with satisfaction the development of cooperation in West Asia, as evidenced by the following: (a) The Baku Accord on Regional Cooperation against Illicit Cultivation, Production, Trafficking, Distribution and Consumption of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances and their Precursors was adopted by the Subcommission on Illicit Traffic and Related Matters in the Near and Middle East * at its thirty-second session, held at Baku from 17 to 21 February 1997. The Baku Accord is annexed to Economic and Social Council resolution 1997/39;
(b) The member States of the Economic Cooperation Organization ** decided to establish a drug control coordination unit;
(c) The law enforcement authorities of Pakistan have increased their cooperation with the authorities of India and with those of the Islamic Republic of Iran in their border areas. The efforts by the Islamic Republic of Iran to stop the flow of illicit drugs across its border with Afghanistan have prevented the smuggling of large amounts of drugs into Europe. The Board encourages the Government of Pakistan to further increase its efforts to prevent the flow of illicit drugs across its borders and to allocate the funds necessary for the adequate functioning of its law enforcement services. The Board welcomes the fact that Pakistan has signed bilateral drug control agreements with China, Kyrgyzstan, the United Arab Emirates and Uzbekistan; (d) Law enforcement services in central Asia have been strengthened and cross-border cooperation involving those services in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan (with the assistance of UNDCP) has improved, as has cooperation between law enforcement services in central Asia and their counterparts in the Russian Federation in border areas where illicit opium and heroin traffickers have been active; (e) In the United Arab Emirates, a new common treatment centre was created and a subregional demand reduction forum was organized. 321. The Board encourages the League of Arab States to ensure the provision of the financial means necessary for the implementation of the Arab drug control strategy adopted by the Council of Arab Ministers for Social Affairs. National legislation, policy and action 322. The Board welcomes the adoption in Turkey of legislation against money-laundering and notes with satisfaction that the adoption of a new law in the Islamic Republic of Iran will enable that State to accede to the 1971 Convention. The Board notes with satisfaction that money-laundering has become an offence in Pakistan and urges the Government of that country to continue with the development of preventive regulatory measures against money-laundering. The Board encourages Israel to adopt legislation against money-laundering and to become a party to the 1988 Convention. The Board regrets that in several countries in West Asia money-laundering operations are still facilitated by a lack of legislation and regulations. In most countries in the region, legislative and administrative measures have not yet been introduced to prevent the diversion of precursors from licit to illicit channels. Such action is urgently needed because the region is frequently used for the trans-shipment of such chemicals to illicit manufacturing sites. 323. The Board urges the Governments of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia to proceed with the adoption of new drug legislation (drafted with the assistance of UNDCP). There is an urgent need to implement regulatory and control measures to combat the increasing flow of illicit drugs through Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia on their way from Asia to Europe and the growing drug abuse problems in those three countries. 324. The Board appreciates the adoption of national programmes for the fight against drug abuse and illicit trafficking in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan, the establishment of a national coordinating committee in Turkmenistan and the creation of national centres for the analysis of information on drug control in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. 325. The Board notes with satisfaction the organization in 1996 of the first national symposium on the prevention of drug abuse in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the enhancement of the treatment policy of the Government. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 326. Cannabis, the most widely abused drug in West Asia, grows wild in many countries in the region. Vast areas in central Asia are covered with wild-growing cannabis. There are contradictory reports in respect of the THC content of the wild-growing cannabis plants in Kazakhstan; the Board encourages the Government of Kazakhstan to investigate and confirm or correct the reports on the very low THC content of those plants. Illicit cannabis cultivation takes place mostly in Afghanistan, but illicit cannabis cultivation has also been reported in Pakistan (mainly in the North-West Frontier Province, bordering Afghanistan) and in several central Asian countries. In 1996, more than l00 tonnes of locally grown cannabis plants were destroyed in Armenia and more than 900 tonnes of such plants were destroyed in Georgia. 327. Many countries in the region are used to trans-ship large amounts of cannabis resin, originating mostly in Afghanistan, to different regions, mainly Europe. 328. Illicit opium poppy cultivation and opium production are taking place mainly in Afghanistan, but opium poppy is also illicitly cultivated in some member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), in central Asia and in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Pakistan. The Board appreciates that the export of opium poppy seeds was prohibited in Pakistan in September 1997; that brought that country's policy regarding poppy seeds in line with its policy of banning all cultivation of the opium poppy. The Board regrets that illicit opium poppy cultivation has not been eliminated in the Dir district of Pakistan as foreseen in the agreement with UNDCP. In Tajikistan, where increasing illicit opium poppy cultivation in the mountainous areas had been reported, some illicit cultivation sites were destroyed in 1996. Significant eradication campaigns were conducted in Armenia and Azerbaijan in 1996. 329. Illicit heroin manufacture and trafficking continue unabated in West Asia. Clandestine heroin laboratories were detected in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Turkey. The opium supplied to the laboratories originated mostly in Afghanistan. Acetic anhydride, which is necessary for the conversion of the morphine content of opium into heroin, is diverted into the region mainly from Europe but is also illicitly obtained in other countries in Asia (see paragraph 285, above). The existence of clandestine heroin laboratories in some countries in central Asia is suspected by local authorities. Large quantities of heroin are smuggled into Europe, mainly out of and through Pakistan and Turkey and through the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. In addition to the existing trafficking routes, illicit traffickers have started to use the territories of the States in the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) for the transportation of illicit drugs from south-west Asia and central Asia to Europe. 330. The widespread abuse of heroin continues in Pakistan; smoking and inhalation are still the most common methods used to administer the drug in that country, though heroin abuse by injection is emerging among youth. Increasing heroin abuse has been reported in Israel and Turkey and in the countries in the Persian Gulf area. Injection of poppy straw extracts remains the usual form of opiate abuse in central Asia. The abuse of synthetic opioids has been reported in Armenia and Azerbaijan; in each of those countries, the seizure of buprenorphine ampules originating in India has been reported. In Armenia, six clandestine laboratories engaged in the illicit manufacture of trimeperidine, a synthetic opioid, have been dismantled in recent years. 331. The abuse of cocaine remains negligible in most countries in the region, but increasing abuse of cocaine has been reported in Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. Psychotropic substances 332. An organization engaged in the illicit manufacture of methaqualone on a large scale has been dismantled in the United Arab Emirates, leading to the seizure of 5 tonnes of the substance that had been destined for Africa. 333. Seizures in Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey indicate that the smuggling of fenetylline out of Europe into countries in the Persian Gulf area has continued. The Board reiterates its appeal to interested Governments to cooperate with each other in clarifying the origin, the trafficking routes and the composition of the different products involved, which are called fenetylline (or Captagon). 334. Increasing abuse of stimulants and LSD and a high prevalence of the abuse of MDMA (commonly known as "ecstasy") have been reported in Israel; these trends are similar to those observed in Europe. 335. Increasing illicit manufacture and abuse of methcathinone (ephedrone) have been reported in central Asia. In 1996, 40 clandestine laboratories engaged in the manufacture of methcathinone from wild- growing Ephedra plants were dismantled in Kyrgyzstan. In Kazakhstan, during the first three months of l997, 10 tonnes of Ephedra plants were seized. 336. With the exception of reports on the abuse of sedatives in Israel and Pakistan and on cases involving the abuse of diazepam and oxazepam, information on the abuse of sedatives, including benzodiazepines, is scarce in West Asia. In the opinion of the Board, an assessment of the drug abuse situation and a review of the regulatory controls, including prescribing and dispensing rules, would be in the interest of most countries in the region. Missions 337. A mission of the Board visited Kyrgyzstan in April 1997. The Board highly appreciates the achievements by the Government, such as the development of a functional control system for licit narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors, the creation of an effective coordinating body and the drafting of new comprehensive drug control legislation that has been presented to the parliament. The Board recommends the adoption of legislation for the prevention of money-laundering and the introduction of provisions for the immediate, pre-trial destruction of seized drugs to prevent such drugs from accumulating. 338. A mission of the Board visited Turkmenistan in April 1997. Before Turkmenistan acceded to the international drug control treaties, all activities related to the control of the licit movement of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors were carried out on behalf of Turkmenistan by the Standing Committee on Narcotics Control of the Russian Federation. The Board encourages the Government of Turkmenistan to create its own national control structures, which are necessary for the implementation of the provisions of the international drug control treaties, and to speed up the drafting and adoption of comprehensive national drug control legislation and the development of a national drug control policy. 339. The Board highly appreciates the efforts by Turkmenistan to fight illicit drug trafficking. The geographical location of Turkmenistan has made it attractive to drug traffickers. The large-scale smuggling of cannabis resin, opium and heroin across the country, out of Afghanistan and into the Russian Federation poses a major challenge: more than 1 tonne of opium, 68 kg of heroin and more than 24 tonnes of cannabis resin were seized in Turkmenistan in 1996. Turkmen law enforcement officers are frequently confronted with well-equipped and heavily armed groups of drug traffickers. 340. Law enforcement action against the large-scale smuggling of chemicals, above all acetic anhydride, out of the Russian Federation and into Afghanistan (and other countries in West Asia where clandestine heroin laboratories are located) is hindered by the lack of the necessary national drug control legislation. The Board urges the Government of Turkmenistan to introduce legal provisions for precursor control as soon as possible. 341. In May 1997, the Board sent a mission to Armenia. The Board notes with satisfaction the significant progress achieved by Armenia in the control of licit narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and recommends strengthening the administrative structures for the control of precursors. 342. The Board invites the Government of Armenia to improve the interministerial coordinating mechanism and to adopt a national drug control programme. 343. The Board trusts that the Government of Armenia will expedite the adoption of adequate drug control legislation, including provisions against money-laundering, and will enhance the capacity of the customs services to prevent drug smuggling. The Board encourages the Government to establish a system for the collection of information on the rapidly deteriorating drug abuse situation and to provide the necessary resources for the treatment of drug addicts. 344. In May 1997, the Board sent a mission to Azerbaijan. The Board encourages the Government of Azerbaijan, which is already a party to the 1988 Convention, to accede to the 1961 Convention and the 1971 Convention. 345. The Board appreciates the recent strengthening of the drug control coordination mechanism at the interministerial level in Azerbaijan. It encourages the Government to adopt adequate drug control legislation, which should include provisions against money-laundering. There is an urgent need for effective control over the precursors in Tables I and II of the 1988 Convention, since Azerbaijan has a large chemical industry. 346. The Government of Azerbaijan should develop services for the treatment of drug addicts and adapt the administrative structures responsible for the control of licit narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances to the conditions of a market economy. Major developments 347. There are signs of some important changes in drug abuse trends in Europe. In some western European countries, the number of occasional abusers of stimulants and hallucinogens is increasing while the number of regular heroin abusers is decreasing. The number of hard-core drug addicts seems to be stagnating and, at least in some countries, smoking, instead of injecting, appears to have become the prevalent route of administration of heroin among young abusers of that drug. 348. Despite changing trends and successful law enforcement interventions, Europe remains a major illicit market for drugs. Indoor and outdoor cultivation of highly potent cannabis is spreading and amphetamine and "ecstasy"-type amphetamine derivatives are produced in a number of clandestine laboratories, for trafficking within Europe and elsewhere. 349. Central and eastern European countries are making progress in adapting their legal systems and administrative structures for the control of licit narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances to the market-economy situation, but they have great difficulties preventing the propagation of abuse of illicit drugs in their countries. 350. Among member States of the European Union, differences between national drug control policies as well as the ongoing promotion of the liberalization or legalization of the non-medical use of drugs, are increasingly threatening the consensus needed for meaningful measures against drug abuse and trafficking, especially in the area of demand reduction. 351. The Board welcomes the holding of drug demand reduction campaigns in the region, but regrets that some of those campaigns have focused only on "harm reduction". The Board reiterates its opinion that "harm reduction" is an important part of demand reduction but not a substitute for it; the Board greatly appreciates the main message of a mass media campaign in Spain that the idea of "controlled" or "safe" taking of illicit drugs is not appropriate. 352. The activities of drug trafficking and other criminal organizations are considered to be among the biggest threats to the security of the Russian Federation and they have become a major challenge for the international community. An assessment of the extent of the drug threat was made at the International Conference on Drug Control Cooperation with the Russian Federation, held in Moscow from 16 to 17 April 1997; the Conference was attended by representatives of 25 countries and 14 international and regional organizations. It is expected that the follow-up to this initiative will strengthen regional and global cooperation in the field of drug control. Treaty adherence 353. Since the last report of the Board was published, Austria has become a party to the 1971 Convention and Austria, Hungary and Iceland have become parties to the 1988 Convention. Of the 44 States in the region, 41 are parties to the 1961 Convention and 40 are parties to the 1971 Convention; and 35 States and the European Community are parties to the 1988 Convention. 354. Albania is not a party to any of the three main international drug control treaties. The Board urges the Government of Albania to accede to those treaties as soon as possible. Regional cooperation 355. The Board welcomes the adoption by the European Union at the end of 1996 of a programme of community action on the prevention of drug dependence (for the period 1996-2000). The programme calls for action aimed at demand reduction and supply reduction at the international level and coordination among member States of the European Union. The Board appreciates the efforts of the European Union to improve the comparability of data on drug abuse, such as the standardization of guidelines to be used by its member States for providing information to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 356. The Board notes with satisfaction that the European Union concluded a number of cooperation agreements with groups of States and individual States in the field of drug control. 357. The Board welcomes the decision of the European Union to establish an early warning system for new synthetic drugs of abuse and to develop a mechanism to expeditiously place those drugs under control in its member States. The Board recommends that, following the placing of a drug under national control in the member States of the European Union, the member States should consider whether such a drug should be added to the schedule of one of the international drug control treaties. 358. The Board appreciates the organization of a conference on money-laundering at Riga in November 1996 by the Governments of the three Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and the adoption of a declaration on the commitment of those States to enact national laws and set up structures against money-laundering (with the assistance of UNDCP, the European Commission and the Financial Action Task Force established by the heads of State or Government of the Group of Seven major industrialized countries and the President of the European Commission), as well as the agreement between the Baltic States on the establishment of a group for the coordination of efforts to combat illicit trafficking and drug abuse. The Board notes with satisfaction the organization of a workshop on drug demand reduction for the Baltic States at Riga in 1997. National legislation, policy and action 359. The Board notes with satisfaction that Austria, following its accession to the 1971 Convention and its ratification of the 1988 Convention, extended its national control regime to include psychotropic substances in Schedules III and IV of the 1971 Convention. 360. The Government of the Russian Federation confirmed its political commitment to strengthen its drug control system and adopted a plan of action for the implementation of the federal drug control programme for the period 1997-2000. The Board appreciates the adoption in the Russian Federation in 1997 of a federal law on drug regulatory measures and a new criminal code and notes with satisfaction that a draft law against money-laundering is under consideration by the Duma, the national legislative body. 361. The Board welcomes the adoption of a new law on precursor control in Switzerland in 1996 but regrets that that State is still not a party to the 1988 Convention. 362. The Board appreciates the adoption of new laws in several European countries, such as the comprehensive law on drug abuse counteraction in Poland in 1997. In Estonia, a law regulating the manufacture and possession of narcotic drugs was adopted in 1997, making cultivation of the opium poppy and cannabis for licit purposes subject to governmental authorization. The Board is confident that the Government of Estonia will speed up the process leading to the enactment of legislation on precursor control and controlled delivery and to the accession of Estonia to the 1988 Convention. 363. In Cyprus, a new law against money-laundering was adopted in 1996, followed by the establishment of a unit against money-laundering. 364. Penalties for drug-related offences were increased by amendments to the national criminal codes in Latvia and Lithuania and by an amendment to drug control legislation in Portugal. The Board notes with satisfaction that, in Belarus, a new criminal code adopted in 1996 included a separate chapter on drug-related offences. 365. The Board recalls that a policy of toleration of drug abuse in public places that was pursued in major Swiss cities until the early 1990s led to increased drug trafficking and growth in the drug-abusing population. The Board expressed its concern at the time and welcomed the abandonment of that practice. 366. The Board expressed its doubts about one element of the new policy in Switzerland, namely, a project for distributing heroin to addicts, and recommended that the scientific merit of the research protocol and the results of that experiment should be evaluated by WHO. That proposal was accepted by the Government of Switzerland and by WHO. 367. In July 1997, the Swiss Government made known its own evaluation of the project, under which heroin had been administered to about 1,000 heroin addicts. It claimed that, for a limited number of addicts who could not be reached by other means, the medical distribution of heroin, accompanied by health and social support services, led to some positive results. The Board is concerned that the announcement of those results and a subsequent national referendum on the Swiss drug policy have led to misinterpretations and hasty conclusions by some politicians and the media in several European countries. The Board regrets that, before the evaluation by WHO of the outcome of the Swiss experiment, pressure groups and some politicians are already promoting the expansion of such programmes in Switzerland and their proliferation in other countries. The Government of the Netherlands has already submitted to the Board estimates for heroin to be used in conducting a similar project. The Board expressed the same reservations about that project as it had expressed about the Swiss project and firmly believes that no further experiments should be undertaken until the Swiss project has undergone full and independent evaluation. 368. The Board is not convinced that the limited positive results claimed by the Swiss Government can be attributed solely to the distribution of heroin itself, as many other factors, such as the prescribing of other controlled drugs and intensive psychosocial counselling and support, were involved. 369. The Board looks forward to the medical and scientific evaluation by WHO and expects that the findings will be communicated to the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, which has consistently recommended prohibiting the use of heroin (for example, in Commission resolution 5 (S-V) of 23 February 1978 and Commission resolution 2 (XXXII) of 11 February 1987). 370. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government of the Netherlands and local authorities have increased their efforts to curb cannabis demand, for example by conducting media campaigns to inform parents about cannabis and other drugs and by encouraging them to tell their children about the risks connected with drug abuse. 371. A company in the Netherlands started to make use of the Internet (see paragraphs 23 and 120-121, above) for the sale of cannabis products and seeds; the authorities in that country are investigating the case and have decided to intensify efforts to prosecute the export of cannabis and cannabis seeds for illicit purposes. The sale of cannabis in coffee shops in amounts in excess of 5 grams (instead of the previous limit of 30 grams) will also be prosecuted in the Netherlands. The Board notes that in the Netherlands penalties for the commercial production of cannabis have been doubled, cannabis cultivation in greenhouses will be made illegal and a law will be drafted allowing mayors to close coffee shops and trade locations if drugs are illegally sold there. In the United Kingdom, legislation was adopted in 1997 enabling local authorities and the courts to close an establishment in or near which there is a serious drug problem, without having to await the outcome of a lengthy appeal. The Board considers those measures to be steps in the right direction. 372. The Board notes with satisfaction that, in Germany, the proposal of a state government to sell cannabis in pharmacies(33) has been rejected by the competent federal authorities. Cultivation, production, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 373. Cannabis, the principal drug of abuse in Europe, is also illicitly cultivated in many countries in the region, above all in the Netherlands, where 180 indoor cultivation sites were detected and 500,000 cannabis plants were seized in 1996. 374. Areas in which cannabis varieties with a low THC content are licitly cultivated, with subsidies from the European Commission, are increasing by 40 per cent annually in the member States of the European Union. The Board, in its reports for 1994(34) and 1996,(35) drew the attention of Governments to the necessity of adequate regulation and monitoring of such cultivation. But the Board is concerned that controls may no longer be feasible if licit cultivation spreads. It calls on European Governments and the institutions of the European Union, when determining their policies, to take into account not only environmental, industrial and economic aspects, but also drug control aspects. 375. Since 1996, cannabis has also been increasingly used in food and beverages, and some products containing cannabis are advertised mostly by underlining its virtues. The Board has doubts that such practices are in line with the spirit of the 1961 Convention and the national legislation of the countries concerned. The Board calls on Governments and the industries concerned to counteract such practices, which appear to be, in some cases, aimed at legalizing the non-medical use of cannabis. 376. The Netherlands is used as the main point of entry for cannabis smuggled into Europe, and Belgian ports are also frequently used for that purpose. About 75 per cent of the cannabis seizures reported in Europe in 1996 were made in those two countries. Albania has become a major supplier of cannabis to Greece and Italy. The seizure of 35 tonnes of cannabis in Colombia on a ship destined for Poland might be a sign of the opening of new trafficking routes. Most of the cannabis seized in the Russian Federation was smuggled into the country out of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. 377. A total of 410 tonnes of cannabis resin were seized in Europe in 1996. Of that total, 243 tonnes of cannabis resin, almost all of which was of Moroccan origin, were seized in Spain. Significant quantities of cannabis resin were also smuggled into Europe out of Pakistan. 378. Cannabis abuse continues among youth in Europe. In the opinion of the Board, the continuous debate about the liberalization and depenalization of cannabis abuse and the aggressive publicity in favour of its legalization are major factors contributing to the attitude of many young people towards cannabis abuse. 379. Illicit opium poppy cultivation was reported mainly in CIS member States. In 1996, 3,500 hectares of opium poppy were eradicated in the Russian Federation and 4,500 hectares were eradicated in Ukraine; and in the Republic of Moldova, about 4 tonnes of poppy straw were seized. 380. The Balkan route remains the most frequently used itinerary of heroin traffickers, as illustrated by the significant heroin seizures made in 1996 in Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia, but the largest amounts were seized in Italy. 381. Authorities of the Russian Federation are having difficulties controlling the many (more than 100) licit manufacturers of precursors and other chemicals in Tables I and II of the 1988 Convention. In 1996, new regulations were introduced: the manufacture, export and import of those substances are subject to licensing by the competent authorities. Large amounts of acetic anhydride originating in the Russian Federation have been seized in Turkmenistan and in other Asian countries. 382. The abuse of poppy straw extracts continues in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russian Federation and Ukraine; in those countries, 70-90 per cent of the registered drug addicts abuse such extracts. In the Russian Federation, more than 500 clandestine laboratories engaged in the extraction of poppy straw were dismantled in 1996. The extracts are usually injected, contributing to the growing number of cases involving HIV infection: in the Russian Federation, the share of new HIV cases attributed to intravenous drug abuse increased from 0.3 per cent in 1987 to 61.2 per cent in 1996. In Poland, the rate was 67 per cent. In Belarus and Ukraine, most of the cases involving HIV infection are attributed to intravenous drug abuse. In Ukraine, in 1996, there were about 1,000 registered overdose-related deaths as a consequence of the spread of intravenous drug abuse. 383. In the Russian Federation, the proportion of abusers of opiates among all drug abusers increased from 1994 to 1997 from 37 per cent to 87 per cent. There was no change in respect of cannabis abusers during that period. According to some surveys, the number of persons abusing drugs regularly in the Russian Federation is estimated at about 2 million. In Ukraine, the number of registered drug addicts increased between 1992 and 1996 from 8,000 to 65,000. In 1996, the emergence of heroin abuse was noted in some central and eastern European countries. 384. Increasing abuse of synthetic opioids was noted in the Russian Federation. Several clandestine laboratories manufacturing fentanyl and 3-methyl-fentanyl were dismantled in the Russian Federation in 1996, mostly in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and growing amounts of buprenorphine, smuggled into the country out of India, were seized. 385. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, a significant increase in the number of methadone abusers was reported in some western European countries, mainly as a consequence of the indiscriminate prescribing of methadone and the uncontrolled use of methadone for maintenance purposes. 386. In 1996, 31.1 tonnes of cocaine were seized in Europe, which was more than in any year before. Most of the cocaine was seized in Spain (13.7 tonnes) and the Netherlands (more than 8 tonnes). Increasing cocaine abuse was reported in Denmark, France and Germany. Cocaine has appeared on the black markets in Belarus, Latvia and the Russian Federation. Psychotropic substances 387. Clandestine laboratories engaged in the illicit manufacture of amphetamine and/or MDMA or other "ecstasy-type" hallucinogenic amphetamine derivatives were dismantled in several countries in Europe. According to the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), the Netherlands is the main source of the MDMA supply in the region. 388. Increasing abuse of amphetamine, MDMA ("ecstasy") and LSD, mainly by young people attending "rave" parties, was reported in several countries in the region. In some countries, the prevalence of the abuse of amphetamine is second only to that of cannabis. A significant increase in the number of hepatitis C infections was recorded among intravenous amphetamine abusers, with severe consequences such as chronic hepatitis, liver damage and/or cancer. 389. The illicit manufacture and abuse of methcathinone (ephedrone) continue in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Republic of Moldova and Russian Federation. In those countries, ephedrine is used as starting material for the illicit manufacture of methcathinone and, in some cases, is extracted from Ephedra plants, often in "kitchen laboratories". The abuse of ephedrine itself was also reported in those countries. In the Russian Federation, customs officials alone seized 1.8 tonnes of ephedrine in 1996. 390. Except for the abuse of temazepam in the United Kingdom, there have been very few reports on the abuse of benzodiazepines and other sedatives in Europe. The abuse of methaqualone was detected in the Russian Federation. In the opinion of the Board, the extent of the abuse of sedatives, mainly benzodiazepines, is underestimated in many European countries. The Board, in its reports for 1992(36) and 1994,(37) has drawn the attention of Governments in the region to the need to review prescribing practices and the use of pharmaceutical preparations containing such psychotropic substances. Mission 391. A mission of the Board visited Romania in July 1997. As a consequence of the turmoil in the former republics of Yugoslavia, Romania has become an important transit route for illicit drug trafficking and its territory is also used as a storage area for illicit drugs in transit. 392. In Romania, a bill on preventing and combating illicit trafficking and drug abuse and three other bills on matters related to drug control (such as countering money-laundering) are being drafted and it is expected that they will be adopted at the end of 1997. The Board notes with satisfaction that, although the administrative structures for drug control matters are still in the development phase in Romania, international trade in narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors is under control, import and export authorizations are required for all drugs and substances under international control. Several attempts to divert precursors have recently been detected by the authorities. The Board recommends to the Government the establishment of a drug control coordinating committee. 393. During the last few years, drug abuse has emerged in Romania: cannabis and cannabis resin are the most abused drugs, but cases involving the abuse of heroin and benzodiazepines have also been reported. The first medical centre for the treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts has been established at Bucharest; most of the patients admitted so far have been heroin abusers. There are plans to establish more such centres throughout the country. Major developments 394. Cooperation in drug control is increasing in Oceania; Australia and New Zealand are efficiently assisting other countries in the region. Most of the drug problems in the region have been reported in Australia and New Zealand. In several Pacific island countries, money-laundering by drug traffickers and the resulting economic and political influence that they may gain in such small countries may pose a great danger if no timely and adequate countermeasures are taken. In Australia and Papua New Guinea, the prevalence of cannabis abuse is among the highest in the world. The abuse of amphetamine derivatives is spreading fast in Australia. Treaty adherence 395. Of the 14 States in Oceania, 8 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 7 are parties to the 1971 Convention and only 3 are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges the Governments of States in the region that are not parties to the three main international drug control treaties to accede to those treaties. Regional cooperation 396. The South Pacific Forum and its subsidiary bodies, the Pacific Islands Law Officers Meeting, the South Pacific Chiefs of Police Conference and the Customs Heads of Administration Regional Meeting, are continuing their efforts to suppress the illicit drug traffic, primarily transit traffic, and to enhance cooperation between law enforcement agencies. They are fully committed to putting in place a legislative framework to combat cross-border crime and to harmonizing laws on drug control, money-laundering, extradition, mutual assistance etc. The Board urges countries in Oceania to speed up the adoption and implementation of those laws and encourages the more developed countries to continue with the provision of funds and technical assistance, which are necessary for the development of the judiciary systems and law enforcement services of less developed countries. 397. The Board welcomes the initiatives for the strengthening of measures against money-laundering in the region, as the situation in several small island countries offers many opportunities for money-laundering operations. The Board appreciates the establishment of the Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering (see paragraph 278, above). 398. The Board appreciates the regional initiatives of the South Pacific Commission and the South Pacific Forum in the field of demand reduction and prevention and encourages Governments to mobilize community-based groups, health services, teachers and law enforcement services for participation in such programmes. 399. The Board notes with satisfaction the initial results of its training seminar for drug control administrators, hosted by the Government of Australia in June 1997, and hopes that the seminar contributed to the general improvement of the control over the licit trade in drugs and chemicals in the region. National legislation, policy and action 400. The Board notes with satisfaction the preparatory steps undertaken by the Government of Palau to accede to the 1961 Convention and the 1971 Convention, the drafting of a new criminal code in the Federated States of Micronesia that includes provisions for the prevention of money-laundering and the forfeiture of assets, and the adoption of a new law on controlled delivery in Australia. The Board urges the new Government of Papua New Guinea to proceed as promptly as possible with the long-awaited upgrading of national drug legislation. 401. The Board regrets that legislation on precursors is still lacking in New Zealand and urges the Government of that country to speed up the adoption of such legislation and the ratification of the 1988 Convention. The Board regrets that the existence of various levels of precursor control in the different states of Australia has hindered the efficient implementation of the provisions of article 12 of the 1988 Convention. It urges the Government of Australia to ensure the uniform application of international drug control measures on its territory. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse Narcotic drugs 402. Cannabis grows wild in several countries in Oceania and it is illicitly cultivated in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu. Indoor cultivation of potent cannabis is taking place mainly in Australia and New Zealand, but there are also reports on such activity in some other countries in the region. 403. Cannabis remains the most widely abused drug in all of the countries in the region. The average THC content of seized cannabis samples in Australia is 5-6 per cent, which is higher than the average reported in any other country in the world. Cannabis from Papua New Guinea with a high THC content continues to be sold at a premium on markets in other countries, mainly in Australia. In addition, the prevalence of cannabis abuse in Australia and Papua New Guinea is among the highest in the world. This is aggravated by the abuse of cannabis hybrids cultivated indoors and of cannabis oil with an even higher THC content. In the light of that situation, the Board notes with concern the ongoing discussion on the legalization of cannabis consumption in Australia, where already, in some states, possession of cannabis for personal use is not prosecuted. Cannabis oil is produced in Oceania, mainly in Australia and New Zealand, or is smuggled into the region out of Asia. 404. In Australia, under efficient governmental control, opium poppy is grown for the licit manufacture of alkaloids from poppy straw. There have been only a few reports on small-scale illicit poppy cultivation and heroin manufacture in Australia. This has also been the case in New Zealand. 405. Heroin is smuggled into the region mainly out of south-east Asia; most of that heroin is destined for Australia, where heroin abuse remains a major problem.(38) The abuse of other opioids (codeine, methadone, morphine and pethidine) is widespread in Australia; it is rated second behind the abuse of cannabis. The overprescribing and diversion of opioids from the licit trade into illicit channels (falsification of prescriptions, robbery and theft in pharmacies etc.) have led the Government of Australia to undertake a review of the methods of control over opioids. Psychotropic substances 406. In 1995 and 1996, more than 60 laboratories engaged in the clandestine manufacture of amphetamine or its derivatives (mainly methamphetamine) were detected in Australia. Precursors for the illicit manufacture of amphetamines (including 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P-2-P), ephedrine and pseudoephedrine) are usually obtained by diversion of those chemicals from licit domestic sources. The Board invites the Government of Australia to improve the monitoring of those chemicals. The abuse of methamphetamine, MDMA ("ecstasy"), MDA, N-ethylmethylenedioxyamphetamine (MDEA, also known as "Eve"), 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (bromo-DMA, also known as "nexus") and other amphetamine derivatives is spreading fast among young people, mainly in Australia and also in New Zealand. Substantial amounts of "ecstasy"-type amphetamines and other hallucinogens (including LSD and psilocybin) are smuggled into Australia and New Zealand, mainly out of countries in Europe.
Vienna, 20 November 1997
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