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III. Analysis of the world situation Major developments 169. Limited availability of reliable data on drug cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse, as well as on legislative and other measures taken by Governments, is a major constraint when assessing the drug situation in most African countries. Although some improvement in the reporting quality and frequency has been noticed, the Board is of the opinion that the assessment of the drug situation remains difficult and encourages Governments in Africa to intensify their efforts to make more accurate assessment of the situation as well as to enhance cooperation with the relevant international and regional bodies. 170. While cannabis cultivation, trafficking and abuse remain major drug control issues throughout the region, large cities and seaports are increasingly being used for the trans-shipment of heroin and cocaine, and the subsequent abuse of such drugs is growing. 171. The abuse of psychotropic substances diverted from licit channels continues unabated in the region. At the same time, the non-availability of narcotic drugs for justified medical needs remains an important shortcoming of the national health systems of many countries in the region. 172. A major drug-related health problem in several African countries consists in the abuse of volatile solvents (glue-sniffing) by street children; in South Africa, for example, it is estimated that 9 out of 10 street children are reported to be regular abusers of such products. 173. The Board welcomes the efforts made by the Governments of Liberia and Sierra Leone to restore their national drug control systems, following the period of civil war. Treaty adherence 174. Since the last report of the Board was published, Mozambique has become a party to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention and Namibia has become a party to the 1961 Convention and the 1971 Convention. 175. The Board urges the Governments of Angola, the Central African Republic, the Comoros, the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea and Eritrea, which are not parties to any of the three main international drug control treaties, to participate in the international drug control system by acceding to those treaties. 176. While formal adherence to the international drug control treaties continues to improve, several African countries still lack adequate legislation to implement the provisions of those treaties, as well as the administrative capacity to give full effect to their national laws and regulations. Regional cooperation 177. In April 1998, a ministerial meeting of the Organization of African Unity elaborated a common position paper in which it categorically rejected the legalization or decriminalization of cannabis and requested the assistance of UNDCP in the development of a special plan for the eradication of cannabis in Africa. The meeting also considered issues concerning criminal justice administration and underlined the importance of designing alternatives to imprisonment, especially for first-time drug offenders. 178. The member States of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) note 31 approved a new drug strategy for southern Africa in September 1998. The Board notes that the SADC strategy entails pursuing a multidisciplinary approach to drug control and the establishment of national drug control coordinating bodies involving law enforcement and judiciary officials, as well as representatives of the media and of the education system. 179. The Board appreciates the holding, on a regular basis since 1996, of meetings on drugs for eastern African heads of criminal investigation departments and anti-narcotics units. It notes that a seaport control project for countries in eastern and southern Africa, involving the establishment and training of seaport drug intelligence units, has already yielded results. The area covered by the project will be extended to include Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and South Africa in 1999 and Mozambique in 2000. 180. The Board notes the existence of subregional legal cooperation instruments such as the treaties of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) note 32 on extradition, mutual legal assistance and the transfer of prisoners. The Board encourages African States to further develop practical subregional and bilateral agreements for mutual legal assistance and cooperation in drug trafficking cases. In one successful example of such cooperation, collaboration of the drug law enforcement authorities of the Niger and Nigeria led to the arrest of several drug traffickers. 181. The Board welcomes the establishment by ECOWAS of an "Ecodrug Fund" (a regional fund for drug control in West Africa) for drug control activities in western Africa and calls on international donors to consider supporting the Fund. 182. The Board notes the involvement of non-governmental organizations in various African countries in efforts to reduce illicit drug demand and encourages them to further mutual support at the regional level. National legislation, policy and action 183. Interministerial committees for drug control have been established and national drug control master plans have been formulated in many African countries. The unavailability of adequate and reliable information on the drug control situation is a major obstacle to efficient planning and action. In several countries, the success of drug control coordinating bodies has been hindered by a lack of authority, recognition and teamwork, as well as a general lack of human and financial resources. The Board encourages the Governments concerned to request when necessary international assistance in those areas. 184. The Board notes with satisfaction that Madagascar and Togo have adopted new drug control legislation and that the adoption of updated legislation is pending in Burkina Faso, Lesotho, Morocco, Swaziland and Uganda. 185. The Board welcomes the intention of Governments in southern and eastern Africa to train their judges, magistrates, prosecutors and investigators in drug-related matters, using the justice training institutions in that subregion and seconded judicial officers and prosecutors to deliver practical training. The aim of the training is the development of "mentor courts" in participating countries, so that justice system personnel can be increasingly trained "on the job" rather than in seminar rooms. 186. The Board notes with satisfaction prevention efforts in several African States where the communities are increasingly being mobilized and drug abuse prevention is being integrated in school curricula. One example of such initiatives is the establishment in Nigeria of "drug-free clubs" in learning institutions. In several other countries, non-governmental organizations have created a network for demand reduction that will deal with after-school activities, as well as demand reduction activities at universities. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse
187. Measured in terms of area under cultivation, reported seizures and abuse, cannabis is the most prevalent drug in Africa. The continent continues to be a major supplier of cannabis and cannabis resin for Europe. 188. Large-scale cannabis cultivation has continued in Morocco. Government surveys on the extent of and trends in cannabis cultivation are not available. The Board notes, however, that the Moroccan Government is planning to receive a UNDCP mission for the assessment of the area under cannabis cultivation. Sources outside of Morocco estimate the area under cannabis cultivation in that country to be at least 60,000 hectares; 1998 production of cannabis resin is estimated at 2,000 tonnes. According to the same sources, Morocco has experienced three consecutive record-breaking cannabis harvests since 1996 because of exceptionally favourable climatic conditions and the use of at times rather sophisticated cultivation methods. The Board notes that increasingly large quantities of cannabis have been seized by the Moroccan law enforcement authorities. The cooperation of Moroccan authorities with their counterparts in other countries has also led to large-scale seizures worldwide of cannabis originating in Morocco. 189. The main cannabis producers in western Africa are still assumed to be Ghana and Nigeria, followed by Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire. Despite a cannabis eradication campaign in Nigeria, there are estimates that cannabis production in that country is still increasing, since illicit cannabis cultivation is being carried out on a larger scale than before. Illicit cannabis cultivation sites have recently been destroyed in the Gambia and Togo. 190. Problems involving trafficking in and abuse of cannabis are growing in central Africa. Illicit cannabis cultivation sites have been discovered in most countries in that subregion. 191. Southern and eastern Africa continues to be an important source of the cannabis being trafficked throughout the region and elsewhere. South Africa remains one of the largest producers of cannabis on the continent. 192. Seaports and airports throughout Africa serve as trans-shipment points for heroin from Asia and cocaine from South America. Such trafficking has resulted in the increased abuse of both heroin and cocaine, especially in large cities in the region. The Moroccan Government has expressed serious concerns over the trafficking in cocaine and heroin destined mainly for Europe that is taking place along its extensive coastline. Efforts by the Government have resulted in large amounts of cocaine being seized on the Moroccan coast. 193. Efforts to eradicate illicit poppy and cannabis cultivation have been reported by Egypt. The Board urges the Government to establish a system for monitoring illicit cultivation, providing ground measurement data on both the extent of illicit cultivation and the results of eradication campaigns.
194. In Africa, there is growing concern about the lack of control over pharmaceutical products, including narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, which are readily available without prescription. In many African countries, the authorities do not possess the means of making assessments of their national legitimate requirements in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances (on the basis of which the Board establishes national estimates) or the means of limiting or increasing the level of imported drugs to the amount required to cover their legitimate needs. The Board endorses the conclusions and recommendations of the Tenth Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Africa, held at Abuja from 20 to 24 April 1998, concerning measures to reduce the hawking of drugs in the street. 195. During the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, methaqualone was largely smuggled out of India into countries in eastern and southern Africa; it now is increasingly being manufactured in those countries in Africa. In the last few years, clandestine laboratories for the manufacture of methaqualone have been discovered in Kenya, South Africa, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia. In March 1998, a machine for processing drugs on a large scale was seized in the port of Dar es Salaam. There are also concerns about the emergence of the clandestine manufacture and abuse of "ecstasy" in the subregion. 196. Countries in western and central Africa seem to be increasingly affected by the abuse of psychotropic substances, as noted by the missions of the Board to Côte d'Ivoire and Gabon. 197. Large quantities of ephedrine have been imported into African countries in recent years. In the view of the Board, ephedrine has been abused in the region but has not been used for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. In Liberia, for instance, large quantities of ephedrine were imported for use by soldiers. The Board notes with appreciation that WHO has proposed the inclusion of ephedrine in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention.
198. Eastern Africa is known for its extensive cultivation of khat (Catha edulis). Khat is mainly grown in Ethiopia, Kenya (in the Nyambe district), Uganda and Yemen and in some parts of Madagascar and the United Republic of Tanzania, from where tonnes of it are exported to Djibouti, Somalia and Yemen. The khat industry has transformed one of the most lush and wealthy agricultural areas into a net food importer. Most of the khat is consumed in eastern Africa. Khat trafficking is somewhat limited by the fact that khat is effective for only a short period after it is harvested; however, there are indications that new methods have made it possible for fresh khat leaves to be transported to some major cities in Europe and elsewhere. Missions 199. A mission of the Board visited Côte d'Ivoire in March 1998. The Board noted the drug control efforts made in that country. The Board expects that the Government, having ratified the 1988 Convention, will expedite the adoption of the relevant domestic laws and regulations, particularly in the areas of money-laundering and precursors. Even though Côte d'Ivoire has no pharmaceutical industry and does not manufacture any precursor, the country, especially its main seaports, could be used as a transit point. 200. Cannabis is the most widely abused drug in Côte d'Ivoire. There is some danger posed by the abuse of psychotropic substances in the form of medicinal products. The Board trusts that the Government will reinforce the monitoring of imports and distribution of such products. 201. The Board notes the restructuring of the interministerial committee for drug control in Côte d'Ivoire and invites the Government to provide the necessary support to enable the committee to function effectively. In addition, the Board recommends that the capacity of the national health services be enhanced to enable those services to deal with the widespread, uncontrolled availability of psychotropic substances and other drugs. 202. A mission of the Board visited Gabon in March 1998. The Board urges the Government to ratify without further delay the 1988 Convention and to comply with its obligations under that treaty by incorporating the necessary changes in its national legislation and regulations, especially in the areas of money-laundering and precursors. 203. The Board invites the Government of Gabon to assess the real medical needs of the country regarding narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and to enhance the capacity of its national health services to monitor more adequately the distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and fulfil international reporting requirements. 204. The Summit of the Americas held at Santiago in April 1998 and the twenty-eighth General Assembly of the Organization of American States (OAS), held at Caracas in June 1998, reiterated the will and commitment of Governments throughout the Americas, to face the problems of drug abuse and illicit trafficking as a matter of priority and to do so in a concerted manner. The Board is pleased to note that, especially since the Summit of the Americas held at Miami, Florida, United States, in December 1994, there have been several regional and subregional initiatives in fields as varied as drug abuse prevention, drug law enforcement, legislation against money-laundering, judicial cooperation and the sharing of proceeds of crime. 205. The Board welcomes the above-mentioned initiatives and the efforts of Governments, OAS and its Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) to develop a multilateral evaluation mechanism as a basis for an effective strategy against drug abuse, illicit drug trafficking and related crime in the Americas. 206. The Board would like to emphasize the significance of the standardized statistical system on drug abuse and law enforcement, which has begun operating under the coordination of CICAD. A mechanism to collect, maintain, retrieve and analyse comparable data on drug abuse and illicit trafficking at the regional level is an extremely useful tool; although it is currently still in its initial stage, it may one day serve as a model for similar mechanisms in other regions. Central America and the Caribbean Major developments 207. The Board notes with sadness the human and economic losses caused in October 1998 by a hurricane in Central America, particularly in Honduras and Nicaragua. The Board, aware of the dimension of the reconstruction tasks ahead and of the need for Governments in the subregion to redirect their priorities, calls upon the international community to support and assist countries in Central America in every respect, including drug control. 208. The region of Central America and the Caribbean continues to be highly vulnerable to the illicit transit traffic in drugs and their precursors between producing and consuming areas of North America and South America and to criminal activities derived from that traffic, such as money-laundering and corruption. The transit traffic in cocaine has increased the availability of that substance and fuelled a rise in drug abuse in the whole region. Governments should remain vigilant and step up their efforts to adjust their legal and institutional frameworks to deal more appropriately with the dangers of drug trafficking and drug abuse. Treaty adherence 209. The Board welcomes the accession of El Salvador to the 1961 and 1971 Conventions and the accession of Grenada to the 1961 Convention. 210. All States in Central America and the Caribbean are parties to the 1988 Convention. Belize is not a party to the 1961 Convention or the 1971 Convention. Haiti, Honduras, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines are not yet parties to the 1971 Convention. Those States are strongly urged to accede to those conventions as soon as possible, since implementation of the 1988 Convention cannot be dissociated from the implementation of the earlier conventions. Regional cooperation 211. As a follow-up to the Plan of Action on Drug Control Coordination and Cooperation in the Caribbean, also known as the Barbados Plan of Action, a second meeting on drug control cooperation in the Caribbean was held at Santo Domingo in December 1997. The Caribbean countries and the international donor community reiterated their commitment to implementing the Barbados Plan of Action and the OAS anti-drug strategy in the hemisphere, both adopted in 1996. The Board welcomes the prioritizing of a number of initiatives, including the creation of legal frameworks for the functioning of national drug control bodies, the earmarking of forfeited assets for demand reduction and drug law enforcement purposes, the procurement of funds for the implementation of national drug control strategies and the strengthening of the investigating and prosecutorial powers of the relevant national agencies. The Board notes with interest the work carried out by the Intergovernmental Task Force on Drugs, established by the Caribbean Community Secretariat (CARICOM), with a view to enhancing the coordination of policy on drug control issues in the Caribbean. 212. The Board notes with satisfaction that within a cooperation mechanism established between countries in Central America, Mexico and UNDCP, a subregional programme for technical cooperation in the field of drug control has been formulated for the period 1998-2002 and a number of initiatives are already under way. The Board hopes that the Governments concerned, with the support of the international donor community, will soon be able to provide the funds required to fully implement the programme. 213. The Board welcomes a project designed to upgrade forensic laboratory services in the Caribbean, initiated in May 1998. The project will improve the forensic capacity of 21 States and territories in the Caribbean. The Board expects that it will enhance the capacities of those countries to support law enforcement agencies and judicial systems in the prosecution of drug-related offences. 214. The Board welcomes the continuing joint drug law enforcement operations undertaken bilaterally and multilaterally by countries in Central America and the Caribbean. The Board would, however, like to point out that the region as a whole would greatly benefit from more clearly defined operational mechanisms for the expeditious exchange of data on illicit drug trafficking and for the planning and execution of joint operations. The creation of a CARICOM regional drug coordination office in October 1998 could prove to be a positive step in that direction. National legislation, policy and action 215. The Board notes with satisfaction the initiatives taken by countries and territories in the Caribbean to bring their legal frameworks up to date and enhance their ability to deal with drug-related crime, in particular money-laundering. The Board welcomes the legislation against money-laundering that was recently enacted in the British Virgin Islands and in Saint Kitts and Nevis. The Board trusts that similar legislation currently under preparation in Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago will be put into effect soon. The Board also welcomes the adoption in 1997 of legislation required for the implementation of the provisions of the 1988 Convention on mutual legal assistance in the Cayman Islands. In Central America, Belize, Costa Rica, Honduras and Panama have already enacted legislation against money-laundering in line with the model legislation of CICAD. The Board urges the authorities of El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua to speed up the legislative processes that they have initiated in that respect. 216. The Board notes the strengthening, in the context of drug-related crime, of the national police and public prosecution services in Jamaica. The Board hopes that legislation against laundering the proceeds of crime and legislation on the control of precursors, which are currently being considered, will be adopted promptly. Jamaica, like other countries in the region, has signed an agreement on mutual cooperation in drug law enforcement operations with the United States. 217. The Board notes with appreciation that Trinidad and Tobago recently signed a mutual legal assistance treaty with the United Kingdom and is in the process of renegotiating several of its extradition treaties with a view to making them more effective. The Board also notes the clear position against corruption and money-laundering adopted by the authorities of the Cayman Islands, where banking institutions have been closed down as a result of financial irregularities, and hopes that adequate legislation will be put in place. 218. The Board notes with concern the slow rate of progress in the adoption of national drug control master plans in the Caribbean. It urges the countries in that subregion that have not yet adopted the master plan to do so as soon as possible. The master plans are useful in dealing with such complex problems as drug abuse and illicit trafficking. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse 219. While, in Central America, cannabis is illicitly produced almost exclusively for domestic abuse, in the Caribbean, it is produced in countries such as Jamaica and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines mainly to be smuggled into Canada and the United States. In all but a few countries in Central America and the Caribbean, cannabis is the most widely abused drug, as well as the most common illicit drug of initiation among teenagers. The amount of cannabis seized in every country in the region except El Salvador and Jamaica has steadily increased over the past five years. 220. Illicit opium poppy cultivation is reported to have continued on a limited scale in Guatemala. Although no reliable data are available on the actual extent of such cultivation, the authorities should remain vigilant to ensure that the reported reductions in the cultivation area are not reversed. Of all the countries in Central America, only Panama reports heroin seizures, but small quantities of heroin continue to be seized throughout the Caribbean. No abuse of heroin has been reported in the region as a whole. 221. Cocaine hydrochloride and "crack" are readily available throughout the region. In Central America, "crack" has within a few years become the second most frequently abused drug, particularly among the poorer and more marginal social segments in larger cities and along the Atlantic coast. In the Caribbean, the abuse of "crack" is noticeable and is often linked to the growing incidence of violence. 222. Seizures of cocaine have risen steadily over the past five years in all countries in the region, particularly in the central Caribbean corridor. Many Caribbean countries have reported seizures of "crack" for a number of years and in Central America the abuse of "crack" has spread rapidly. Given the high addiction potential and lower prices of "crack", health and law enforcement authorities should monitor domestic trends in the abuse of and illicit traffic in that form of cocaine and, with support from the international community, adopt the appropriate countermeasures. 223. The stockpiling of cocaine has been detected in most countries in Central America and the Caribbean. Drug traffickers thus try to minimize the risks of being indicted in, and extradited to, the United States and to reduce the quantities of cocaine being moved at any given time to the levels actually required by traffickers in North America, rather than having to move entire consignments, which are more easily detectable. Some countries in the Caribbean appear to be re-emerging as transit points for illicit drug trafficking. 224. Psychotropic substances, mainly benzodiazepines, are licitly manufactured in Cuba, Guatemala and Panama. Although no diversion of such drugs has been noted in the licit intraregional trade, domestic controls over the distribution and sale of certain psychotropic substances are seriously deficient in several countries, where, for example, diazepam is reported to be readily available over the counter. 225. The Board notes with concern that, in general, reliable data on drug abuse are not readily available for the region. Some improvement has been noted in respect of Central America, particularly since the introduction by CICAD of its centralized information system on drug abuse. Few comprehensive drug abuse surveys have been undertaken in the Caribbean. Governments in that subregion should consider undertaking such surveys as they are an essential tool in the formulation of drug control policy. 226. In order to reduce the possibility of diversion of precursors in the region, particularly in Central America, Governments should carefully review their legitimate requirements of controlled chemicals, especially ephedrine, which in some countries was found to have been diverted for use in the illicit manufacture of amphetamines. Missions 227. A mission of the Board visited Belize in April 1998. Belize is a party to the 1988 Convention but has not yet acceded to the 1961 and 1971 Conventions. In fact, Belize is the only country in Central America that is not a party to the 1961 Convention. 228. The Board strongly urges the Government of Belize to accede to the 1961 and 1971 Conventions, as a matter of priority. The objectives of the 1988 Convention cannot be achieved unless the provisions of the earlier conventions have been fully implemented. 229. The Board requests the Government of Belize to introduce control mechanisms for those substances that may be used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, as required under article 12 of the 1988 Convention. The Government of Belize should establish the mechanisms required to collect data on its legitimate domestic requirements of controlled chemicals and to ensure the legitimacy of chemical imports, which would greatly contribute to its fulfilment of the reporting obligations under article 12 of the 1988 Convention. Major developments 230. Cannabis continues to be the most commonly abused drug in all three countries in North America. There is a trend towards a higher tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in the cannabis cultivated in greenhouses in Canada and the western parts of the United States that is trafficked to the south and to the east. Another trend, the increasing purity levels of heroin available in North America, has led to an increase in heroin smoking, especially among young people. The market share of heroin from south-east Asia that is abused in the United States has continued to be displaced by heroin originating in Latin America, while heroin manufactured in south-east Asia has maintained a predominant share of the illicit market in Canada. Drug-related organized crime remains a major concern throughout the region. 231. Within the past year, referendums held in several states of the United States resulted in the approval, to various degrees, of the use of cannabis for certain medical purposes. The issue remains controversial. The Board wishes to emphasize that medical and scientific decisions with regard to all drugs should fall under the competence of authorized national health authorities and, in that context, renews its call for additional scientific research to be carried out on that matter. 232. On-line do-it-yourself guides that enable their readers to prepare and abuse controlled substances continue to proliferate on the Internet. While the problem is not confined to North America only, many of the home pages are located on servers in Canada and the United States. 233. In April 1998, Canada acted as host to a major and successful youth forum on international drug prevention, in anticipation of the twentieth special session of the General Assembly. At the forum, youth from 24 countries shared the experiences of their communities in dealing, with the support of non-governmental organizations, with drug abuse. Some of the young people later addressed the General Assembly at its twentieth special session, where they spoke in favour of a drug-free lifestyle. Treaty adherence 234. All three States in North America are parties to the 1961 Convention, the 1971 Convention and the 1988 Convention. Regional cooperation 235. Cooperation continues to be an important element of the drug control strategies of the Governments in North America, and multilateral and bilateral strategies are high on the political agendas in the region. The exchange of information is considered to be particularly crucial with regard to money-laundering and precursor control. 236. It is hoped that the bilateral drug control strategy announced by the Governments of Mexico and the United States in February 1998 will increase cooperation between the two States in areas such as anti-corruption efforts, measures against money-laundering, asset forfeiture, interdiction, the sharing of information to reduce illicit drug demand, the sharing of technology, training, the identification of precursors, and the prosecution and extradition of drug criminals. At the first conference on demand reduction between Mexico and the United States, held at El Paso, Texas, in March 1998, joint strategies and programmes were developed to reduce illicit demand for drugs. The Board notes the cooperation between the law enforcement officials of Mexico and the United States aimed at stemming the flow of chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in the south-western part of the United States and the cooperation between Colombia and the United States aimed at thwarting the trafficking in potassium permanganate from countries in Asia to Colombia. 237. The Board welcomes the conclusion of numerous agreements by Governments in the region, with each other and with third countries, to enhance regional and international cooperation in drug control. National legislation, policy and action 238. The Board notes that Canada has begun developing regulations to ensure that its national legislation, especially with respect to benzodiazepines, is in compliance with the provisions of the 1971 Convention. The Board urges the Government to promulgate those regulations without delay. Legislation is also being introduced in Canada that would supplement the existing laws against money-laundering by establishing new financial reporting requirements regarding suspicious transactions and the cross-border movement of currency. The Board encourages Canada to take similar measures without delay to ensure that its regulation of precursors and other chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances meets international standards. 239. The Board welcomes the enactment in 1998 by the Government of Mexico of precursor control legislation covering all substances under Table I and Table II of the 1988 Convention, as well as additional substances. The Board trusts that the Government will soon establish a comprehensive regulatory framework to ensure the effective implementation of that legislation. The Board welcomes the establishment, by the Office of the Attorney General of Mexico, of a unit to investigate money-laundering. 240. The United States has continued its efforts to build on its strategy, announced in 1997, to reduce illicit drug use and availability in that country by one half over a 10-year period. The Board notes with appreciation that the United States Government is providing substantial funding to youth programmes and community-based efforts to combat the drug problem. 241. A significant amount of work is being done by the United States to provide via the Internet accurate information on drug prevention, addiction and treatment to parents with drug-addicted children, to doctors and to researchers worldwide. The Board notes the media campaign against drug abuse that began in January 1998 under the sponsorship of the United States Government. The campaign is intended to counteract the proliferation of messages on television and the Internet that tolerate or even promote drug abuse, a subject discussed extensively in the report of the Board for 1997.note 33 242. The Board appreciates the substantial work being done by local non-governmental organizations in Mexico to reduce illicit drug demand. The Board notes the launching in May 1998 of a televised public information campaign on demand reduction, organized by a private sector foundation, complementing the efforts of the Mexican Government in that area. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse
243. Indoor cannabis cultivation has increased significantly in Canada. Seizure data indicate the movement of illicit cannabis with a high THC content from the province of British Columbia to the United States, as well as from west to east in the United States. 244. Cannabis remains the most widely abused drug in North America and is the preferred drug of abuse in each of the three countries in the region. Surveys in the United States have shown that the upsurge of cannabis abuse among young people is directly linked to propagation of the false perception that cannabis abuse is harmless. 245. Efforts continue to be made by the Government of Mexico to eradicate illicit opium poppy cultivation. Opium poppy continues to be illicitly cultivated in limited areas, mostly in high altitudes. Heroin manufactured from poppy grown in Colombia, Guatemala and Mexico is destined primarily for the illicit market in the United States. As opium produced in Mexico is thought to be used to manufacture heroin within the borders of that country, the Board encourages the Government to exercise increased vigilance over precursors involved in heroin manufacture and to strengthen its cooperation with the Board. The purity level of heroin manufactured in Latin America and transported northward is increasing. 246. Seizure data indicate that illicit trafficking in cocaine from South America through Mexico is still significant. 247. In Canada and the United States, the number of deaths due to drug overdose has been rising, possibly as a result of increased purity levels of heroin. While overall drug abuse levels in Mexico have remained low compared with the levels in the United States, the abuse of cocaine and "crack" in Mexico, especially by young people, appears to have risen in recent years. The abuse of "crack" appears to be declining in the United States. Unfortunately, new and young users are being attracted to heroin, mainly because of its easy availability, lower prices and higher purity. Over the past few years, increases in the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection among drug abusers were reported in many metropolitan areas in Canada, purportedly owing to the increasing number of addicts choosing to inject cocaine in combination with other drugs, such as heroin.
248. The trafficking in and abuse of methamphetamine in the United States continues to increase. Criminal organizations based in Mexico that were involved in cannabis and cocaine trafficking have switched to methamphetamine trafficking in recent years to supply the illicit market in the United States. The use of existing distribution networks appears to be facilitating the rapid spread of methamphetamine abuse throughout the United States. 249. The medical consumption of methylphenidate, after increasing steadily over a 10-year period ending in 1996, appeared to level off in 1997; however, the use of amphetamine and dexamphetamine for the treatment of ADD has increased sharply. The Board reiterates its concern, expressed in its report for 1997,note 34 that the utmost vigilance should be exercised to prevent the possible misdiagnosing and the inappropriate prescribing of methylphenidate and other stimulants. 250. LSD, which is manufactured illicitly and is particularly popular on the west coast of the United States, is being sold and distributed worldwide by postal order.
251. Multiple drug abuse is being reported with greater frequency in the United States. For example, "speedballing" (i.e. combining heroin and cocaine through injection or inhaling) is becoming increasingly popular throughout the country. Cannabis cigarettes combined with other substances, such as cocaine hydrochloride, "crack", phencyclidine (PCP) or codeine, are readily available in many parts of the United States. 252. Sodium oxybate (gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB)) and ketamine are emerging drugs in the United States, particularly in the "club scene". Missions 253. In October 1998 the Board sent a mission to the United States. 254. The Board highly appreciates the firm intention of the United States Government to significantly reduce the supply of and demand for drugs during the next 10 years and to have designed a well-targeted strategy of actions with an inbuilt mechanism for evaluating the performance of activities to be undertaken in the coming years. 255. The Board invites the United States Government to share with other interested Governments experiences with and results of its unprecedented media campaign aimed at preventing young people from abusing drugs, which focused on their attitudes towards recreational drug abuse. 256. The Board urges the United States Government to find new ways of effectively dealing with drug abuse among hard-core addicts, which account for the major share of illicit drug demand, as recognized in the strategy. 257. The Board notes with appreciation the encouraging results of interdiction efforts, in particular the high interception rates for cocaine and the successful efforts to prevent the diversion of a number of chemicals from licit manufacture and trade to the clandestine manufacture of drugs inside and outside the United States. 258. The Board hopes that a consensus meeting on the diagnosis and treatment of ADD held in the United States in November 1998 will contribute to a common understanding of correct medical and scientific criteria, which in the last decade have become significantly less stringent than the criteria established by WHO and used in most other countries. Ways must be found to ensure that the practices followed in diagnosing ADD and prescribing stimulants in the United States are in line with established criteria and not subjected to present wide variations, in order to reduce the risk of misdiagnosis, over-prescribing and abuse. 259. The Board trusts that the United States Government will vigorously enforce its federal law, which is in line with the international drug control treaties, in states that, pursuant to referendums, have authorized the use of cannabis, contrary to the federal law prohibiting the medical and non-medical use of cannabis. The decision of whether a substance should be authorized for medical use has always been taken, and should continue to be taken, in all countries by the bodies designated to regulate and register medicines. Such decisions should have a sound medical and scientific basis and should not be made in accordance with referendums organized by interest groups. Major developments 260. The efforts of Governments and international organizations have led to a decrease in areas under coca bush cultivation and the production of coca leaf, the main illicit crop in South America. However, reductions in coca bush cultivation in some areas are quickly and easily compensated for by new cultivation sites in other areas. 261. Good eradication results must be followed by effective and sustained reduction of illicit crop cultivation areas throughout the region. Governments may have to pay more attention to the eradication of new cultivation sites. The Board expects that the Governments of Bolivia, Colombia and Peru will bear such considerations in mind when they implement eradication strategies, with a view to complying fully with the commitments assumed by them at the twentieth special session of the General Assembly, held from 8 to 10 June 1998. Treaty adherence 262. Guyana continues to be the only country in South America that is not yet a party to the 1961 Convention. All other States in the region are parties to the three international drug control treaties. 263. The Board, therefore, calls on the Government of Guyana not to delay any further its accession to the 1961 Convention. The Board would like to reiterate its opinion that full and effective implementation of the more recent international drug control treaties is only possible if the provisions of the 1961 Convention are fully implemented. Regional cooperation 264. At the first conference of the Andean regional group on drug control, held at Arequipa, Peru, in August 1998, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Panama, Peru and Venezuela agreed on the establishment of a regional drug law enforcement training centre and on the creation of an electronic information exchange system for drug law enforcement. It is hoped that the two initiatives will prove useful in fostering mutual trust among drug law enforcement agencies in the region and in standardizing investigative techniques, data collection methods and systems for the dissemination of information. 265. Furthermore, such subregional mechanisms may in due course assist the countries involved in developing more functional and coordinated control of their common borders, particularly if other interested parties such as Ecuador, Guyana and Suriname are also included. Effective border control is especially difficult in a region with dense tropical rainforests, as in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins, where smuggling across national borders is particularly difficult to combat. 266. In 1998, Ecuador and Peru agreed on a plan to end their long-standing border dispute. The agreement includes the creation of bilateral commissions on commerce, navigation, cross-border collaboration, boundary delineation, mutual confidence and security. It is hoped that that agreement, similar to the one concluded between Ecuador and Colombia, will contribute to effective cooperation between those countries in drug and chemical control. 267. A joint survey on drug abuse is due to be conducted for the first time by the Governments of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru and Uruguay during the second half of 1998. The Board welcomes that initiative and trusts that such joint exercises will produce comparable data on drug abuse levels and trends. It encourages the Governments concerned to proceed with the undertaking and to share their experiences with other Governments upon request. National legislation, policy and action 268. In January 1998, Bolivia launched Anti-Drug Strategy 1998-2002, also known as the Dignity Plan, outlining its goals and policies against drug abuse and illicit drug production, manufacture and trafficking until the year 2002. The plan was designed on the basis of broad national consensus despite some initial opposition. The Board welcomes the adoption of the plan and hopes that the international donor community will support those efforts of the Government. 269. In Brazil, money-laundering was criminalized, regulations sheltering bank secrecy were relaxed and new legislation against money-laundering and concealment of assets was enacted, all in the first quarter of 1998, following steps that had been recommended by the Board on several occasions and that had already been taken in other countries in South America. Brazil being the largest economy and financial market in the region, the measures were a necessity. The Board hopes that the new legislation will be fully implemented and its impact closely monitored. 270. In 1998, Brazil also began a major effort to reshape its structures for drug control and for making drug policy. A new board, responsible for the formulation and coordination of both drug abuse prevention and law enforcement policies, is an integral part of the Government. 271. The Board has taken note of the anti-corruption campaign launched in early 1998 by the state police of Rio de Janeiro with the full support of the Government. According to some accounts, many police officers were fired on corruption charges. That should serve as an example for other countries worldwide and all levels of public service. Furthermore, between 1997 and 1998, the Brazilian federal police dismantled at least three major drug trafficking organizations in the southern part of the country and launched a national programme for precursor control. 272. The Board notes that in 1998 the Constitutional Court of Colombia confirmed the reintroduction of the extradition from Colombia of Colombian nationals but that it is applicable only in cases involving crimes committed after December 1997. Also in 1998, Colombia introduced legislation to allow for the early release of sentenced criminals who have served at least 60 per cent of their prison terms and for an unsupervised annual leave of absence for those who have served a minimum of 80 per cent of their terms. The Board notes that the legislation excludes sentenced drug traffickers from the early release benefit and that the Government has expressly instructed the relevant authorities not to consider such persons for the annual leave benefit. 273. The Board notes that in Colombia in 1998, several former public servants of high rank were sentenced to jail on corruption charges and, under legislation enacted in 1997, the prison terms of some major drug traffickers were substantially increased. Furthermore, law enforcement authorities dismantled two emerging drug trafficking organizations. 274. In Peru, legislation against money-laundering and banking regulations enacted in July 1998 were temporarily suspended pending the adoption of amendments to solve problems related to implementation. The Board encourages the Government to speed up the amendment process and to reintroduce the amended legislation as soon as possible. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse
275. The extent of illicit cannabis cultivation in South America is unknown. Cannabis is cultivated usually for local consumption; in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Paraguay and Suriname, it is also cultivated to be smuggled into other countries. In most countries in the region, the amount of cannabis seized has continued to increase. According to some surveys, cannabis remains the most common drug of abuse, particularly among the very young (15-19 years of age), and is the most often reported drug of initiation. 276. Trends in illicit opium production and heroin manufacture remained unchanged in 1998. Some surveys indicate that opium poppy cultivation in Colombia has remained stable for the past three years, despite an increase in the amount of heroin seized in the past year. Nonetheless, in contrast with the situation a decade ago, several countries in the region now report at least some abuse of heroin. That may be an indicator of the growing availability of heroin, a fact that should not be ignored by Governments planning their national strategies against drug abuse and illicit trafficking. 277. Reliable data on the illicit cultivation of coca bush, the production of coca leaf and the manufacture of cocaine hydrochloride continue to be scarce. The increase in the area under coca bush cultivation in Colombia is largely offset by reductions in the areas under coca bush cultivation in Bolivia and Peru. The country with the largest area under coca bush cultivation is reported to be Colombia, followed by Peru and Bolivia. In view of the higher coca leaf yield in Peru, it appears that the country has remained the world's leading producer of coca leaf. 278. The Board notes with satisfaction that a new Peruvian eradication and integrated economic development plan was endorsed by the international donor community early in November 1998. The Board hopes that the required funds will be made available to the Government. 279. The Board welcomes the fact that Bolivia, Colombia and Peru were well on their way to reaching their coca bush eradication targets for 1998. The Board hopes that the present decreases in coca bush cultivation in the region will be sustained in the long term. As the Board has repeatedly stated in the past, the eradication of coca bush requires major efforts combining effective law enforcement and alternative development programmes. 280. As for the illicit manufacture of cocaine, Colombia continues to be the world's leading cocaine producer. Nevertheless, illicit trafficking organizations in both Bolivia and Peru have kept increasing their cocaine manufacturing and smuggling capabilities over the past few years. Governments are reminded of the dangers that well-organized and self-sufficient criminal organizations may present to political, economic and social institutions. 281. Knowledge of the regional patterns of the diversion of and trafficking in chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of cocaine is improving. Governments of a number of exporting countries have stopped suspicious shipments of chemicals, including increasingly large shipments of potassium permanganate, destined to cocaine-processing areas in South America. Countries in the region, in particular Colombia, have seized large quantities of such chemicals. For instance, the quantities of acids and solvents reported seized have been the largest in five years; the quantity of potassium permanganate seized in 1997 (112 tonnes) is the largest reported since 1989 and is more than the quantities reported seized in the previous four years combined. 282. Many substances not listed in Table I or Table II of the 1988 Convention have been reported seized. In contrast, little is known about the diversion of and trafficking in the critical chemicals used in illicit heroin manufacture, particularly acetic anhydride. 283. Verification of the legitimacy of individual transactions has led to the identification of suspicious shipments. Governments in the region are invited to follow the example of Colombia and Ecuador and invoke article 12, paragraph 10 (a), of the 1988 Convention, as it would apply to acetic anhydride and potassium permanganate and other substances in Table II under the agreements reached at the twentieth special session of the General Assembly. The Assembly, in its resolution S-20/4 B, on the control of precursors, recommended that States extend to acetic anhydride and potassium permanganate key measures related to the exchange of information on substances in Table I, requiring exporting countries to provide some form of pre-export notification upon request. 284. The Board would like to emphasize the need for the Governments of importing countries in South America to carefully review their legitimate uses and requirements of controlled chemicals, particularly acetic anhydride and potassium permanganate, in view of the fact that there have been large, excess imports of several chemicals in the region, much of which might be diverted into illicit channels. 285. Traffickers of cocaine destined for illicit markets in Europe and North America continue to use more diverse methods and routes. No country in the region has been able to avoid being used as a transit point for cocaine smuggling. In most countries, the amount of cocaine seized has continued to increase over the past year, the sole exceptions being Peru and Uruguay. 286. Surveys of hospital emergency rooms indicate that abuse of cocaine hydrochloride is most prevalent among persons between 30 and 39 years of age and that the growing abuse of "crack", common to the entire region, is more noticeable in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela.
287. As for psychotropic substances, one of the main concerns in the region continues to be the abuse of stimulants in the form of anorectics.note 35 The three countries most directly affected by such abuse, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, have, on the recommendation of the Board, taken legislative and/or administrative steps to deal with the problem. A decrease in such abuse has already been reported in Chile, while Argentina and Brazil are still trying to overcome implementation difficulties related to the large size of their territories. 288. Neighbouring countries still not facing serious problems related to the abuse of stimulants, namely Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, should take all the preventive measures that they deem appropriate to avoid the spread of such abuse. The Board notes that Uruguay has banned the use of prescription formulas to prescribe stimulants, a measure that other Governments should also consider. 289. The Board is concerned over the growing abuse of tranquillizers and amphetamine-type substances, such as "ecstasy", noted in surveys of hospital emergency rooms, particularly in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. Solid statistical data are scant, but health authorities in South America as a whole should collect data on the subject in a more systematic manner, with a view to determining the real extent of such abuse. Missions 290. A mission of the Board visited Suriname in April 1998. Although drug control legislation and some regulations against money-laundering are already in place, money-laundering per se is not yet a crime and legislation against money-laundering is still needed. 291. The Board welcomes the establishment in Suriname of a national coordinating body for drug control matters: the National Anti-Drug Council, responsible for, inter alia, advising the Government on the national drug control policy and for developing policy in areas such as drug law enforcement and the reduction of illicit drug demand, including matters related to the treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers. The adoption of a national drug control plan, which already exists in draft form, would greatly facilitate the work of the Council in carrying out its functions, for which adequate resources will also be required. 292. Illicit production of and trafficking in cannabis, as well as illicit trafficking in cocaine destined mainly for Europe, remain significant problems in Suriname. Its extensive seacoast and difficult to reach uplands, both extremely difficult to control, together with its proximity to major illicit cocaine manufacturing areas and its close commercial and communication links with countries in Europe, particularly the Netherlands, make Suriname an ideal trans-shipment point for consignments of illicit drugs and precursors. The Board urges the Government of Suriname to step up its control measures and to pursue closer bilateral and multilateral cooperation with the Governments of neighbouring countries. 293. Until now, some efforts have been made by the Government of Suriname to assess the country's legitimate national requirements in precursors and chemicals. The Board encourages the Government to continue those efforts and to use the information thus obtained to establish a functional and effective system to prevent the diversion of controlled chemicals into illicit channels. Closer cooperation with exporting countries should be fostered in that area. 294. A mission of the Board visited Argentina in September 1998. The Board appreciates the role played by the Secretariat for Planning the Prevention of Drug Addiction and the Fight against Drug Trafficking (SEDRONAR), the national body for making drug policy in Argentina, created in 1989, in the enactment of needed regulations in the fields of drug control, demand reduction and illicit drug trafficking. Nonetheless, a comprehensive law against money-laundering is still under consideration. The Board urges the Government of Argentina to enact the long-pending law against money-laundering, as soon as possible. 295. The Board encourages the Government of Argentina to enhance the capacity of SEDRONAR to coordinate policies and action with all other government agencies with responsibilities in drug-related matters, particularly those involved in national and international drug control at the state and national levels, as well as to establish the presence of SEDRONAR in all states. 296. The Board is aware that considerable resources are required for Argentina to adequately control the passage of persons and goods along its borders with Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay, which are highly vulnerable to smuggling of all sorts, including illicit trafficking in drugs and their precursors. Such a complex border control situation can only be effectively dealt with on a multilateral basis. The Board, therefore, encourages the Government of Argentina, together with the Governments of its neighbouring countries, to step up efforts aimed at enhancing the coordination of border control policies and improving the exchange of information and the conducting of joint drug law enforcement operations. 297. A total of 29 independent police forces are involved in, inter alia, combating illicit drug trafficking and related crime in Argentina at the state and national levels. The Board trusts that there will be centralized monitoring of their activities, as well as coordination, including with other relevant agencies such as the state judicial systems, to ensure the efficiency of those activities. 298. The Board appreciates the role played so far by the Government of Argentina in drug and chemical control at the subregional level, in particular its efforts within the Common Market of the Southern Cone (MERCOSUR) to harmonize existing lists of precursors and essential chemicals, as well as of drug control procedures. 299. The national drug control administration of Argentina, within the Ministry of Health, should be strengthened, especially in its capacity to exert effective control over the misuse of prescription formulas containing psychotropic substances. For instance, closer cooperation between the health authorities and the medical and pharmaceutical communities should be fostered with a view to improving inspection capabilities at the state and national levels. 300. The Board welcomes the recent control measures introduced in Argentina with regard to the high consumption of anorectics, including the monitoring of prescription formulas and of the medical use of pemoline, which resulted in a considerable decrease in the consumption of that substance. Technical visits 301. In September 1998, a technical visit was made to Brazil to review the control of the licit manufacture of and trade in substances under international control, in particular the control of the domestic distribution of stimulants. The Board notes the adoption in May 1998 of a new regulation on substances under special control, which includes internationally controlled substances and consolidates several regulations issued on the subject since 1974. It is expected that resources for the implementation of the new regulation will be made available to the relevant authorities. 302. In order to prevent the abuse and misuse of licitly manufactured psychotropic substances in Brazil, the operational capacity of the authorities responsible for the licit domestic movement of drugs should be strengthened, particularly with respect to the registration, control and inspection procedures. 303. The use of prescription formulas for the prescribing of psychotropic substances and the dispensing of such products by pharmacists and, above all, by unqualified individuals may have to be discontinued. That practice is a major factor contributing to the abuse of stimulants and other substances under international control. Major developments 304. The economic crisis in East and South-East Asia is having an effect on all aspects of life in the region. The annual budgets for drug control are being significantly cut in some countries. It is still difficult, however, to determine with any certainty the effect of the economic downturn on illicit drug trafficking, consumption patterns and street prices. 305. Efforts to promote increased trade and mobility between the countries along the Mekong River (Cambodia, China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam) continue notwithstanding the economic situation. While proposals for paving roads and opening additional border points will undoubtedly facilitate economic recovery and growth in the region, the Board underlines the importance of incorporating, at the level where such projects are designed, appropriate mechanisms that guarantee that improvements in infrastructure and increased ease of mobility through the region do not unintentionally facilitate an increase in illicit trafficking in controlled substances. 306. The major drug control problems affecting the region continue to be the illicit cultivation of opium poppy (in the areas along the border between Myanmar and its neighbouring countries) and the smuggling of acetic anhydride, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine into the Golden Triangle, where those chemicals are used to manufacture heroin and amphetamine-type stimulants in clandestine laboratories. Drug trafficking routes extend from that area to illicit markets in and outside the region, and the availability of illicit drugs is contributing to drug abuse problems, including the rapid spread of HIV infection among those who abuse those substances by injection. Treaty adherence 307. The Government of Viet Nam acceded to all three international drug control treaties late in 1997. The Board, however, notes with concern the reservations formulated by Viet Nam on the extradition provisions of the three treaties (article 36, paragraph 2 (b), of the 1961 Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol; article 22, paragraph 2 (b), of the 1971 Convention; and article 6 of the 1988 Convention). Extradition being an essential mechanism in the provision of international cooperation under the international drug control treaties, the Board urges Viet Nam to review its position in that regard and to withdraw its reservations. 308. While the Indonesian parliament ratified the 1988 Convention early in 1997, the Government has not yet deposited the instrument of ratification with the Secretary-General. The Board urges the Government to do so without further delay. 309. Cambodia and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea remain the only two countries in the region that have yet to become a party to any of the international drug control treaties, although there are signs that Cambodia is taking steps in that direction (see paragraphs 310 and 312 below). Mongolia is not yet a party to the 1971 Convention or the 1988 Convention. The Board hopes that Thailand will soon be in a position to become a party to the 1988 Convention. Regional cooperation 310. The Board welcomes the increasing operational cooperation taking place among the six countries that are signatories to the 1993 memorandum of understanding in drug control (Cambodia, China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam) through the implementation of a UNDCP-assisted subregional programme aimed at precursor control, cross-border cooperation and training in law enforcement, the reduction of illicit drug use in the highlands and among high-risk groups and the introduction of alternative development among the poppy growing population. In July 1998, the foreign ministers of the member States of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) signed a joint declaration for a drug-free ASEAN, aimed at making the subregion free from illicit drug production, abuse and trafficking by the year 2020. 311. Considering the extent of the illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in East and South-East Asia and the smuggling of chemicals used in their illicit manufacture between countries in that region and countries in South Asia, the Board believes that greater cooperation with countries in South Asia may be warranted. 312. As for bilateral initiatives, the Board appreciates the increased cooperation between Cambodia and Thailand in taking action against drug traffickers, as exemplified by the following: the signing in May 1998 of an extradition treaty between the Governments of those two countries; the signing in July 1998 of an agreement by the regional border committee of Cambodia and Thailand to mount a joint drive to suppress drug trafficking along the common border of the two countries; and the signing in July 1998 of an agreement by the navies of the two countries to conduct joint patrols to counter drug trafficking and piracy in common territorial waters. In July 1998, protocols establishing cooperation in civil and criminal justice were also signed by the Governments of the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam. In June 1998, a memorandum of understanding on drug control cooperation was signed by Cambodia and Viet Nam. In October 1998, agreements were reached between Thailand and Viet Nam on legislative and judicial cooperation and joint activities aimed at suppressing the illicit traffic in narcotic drugs. National legislation, policy and action 313. The Board notes that a new bill designed to curb money-laundering is expected to be passed shortly by the parliament of Thailand. The Board encourages the Government to enact that legislation without delay as a further step to enable it to meet the requirements of and become a party to the 1988 Convention. The Board notes the campaign by the Office of the Narcotics Control Board of Thailand to discourage the media coverage of celebrities who have been involved in drug use. This type of initiative is intended to contain the glamorization of recreational drug abuse, which was discussed at length in the report of the Board for 1997.note 36 314. The Board appreciates the work being done in a number of countries in East and South-East Asia in the area of prevention, including work done at the grass-roots level by a number of local non-governmental organizations in countries such as the Philippines and Thailand. Those organizations have contributed significantly to the efforts to reduce illicit drug demand in those countries. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse
315. Cannabis continues to be cultivated in many countries in the region, both for domestic consumption and for export. Cambodia has become a major source of cannabis for illicit markets throughout the world. A strong increase in trafficking in cannabis was reported in Malaysia. 316. The illicit trade in and abuse of opiates continue to pose major problems in the region. Myanmar remains the source of a sizeable proportion of the world's illicit supply of opiates, although strengthened law enforcement efforts by the Government of Myanmar appear to have led to more opiates being seized and opium poppy cultivation being eradicated in more areas. The cultivation of opium poppy and the production of opium as well as the manufacture of heroin persist not only in Myanmar, along its borders, but in neighbouring countries as well. The large-scale eradication of opium poppy cultivation has been carried out by the Government of Viet Nam. China and Thailand are major trafficking centres for heroin from the Golden Triangle, although routes through Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam also exist. The smuggling of heroin through the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China appears to have dropped off significantly, as drug syndicates appear to have moved their stores onto the mainland and are trafficking in smaller quantities, which are more difficult to detect. 317. In the Mekong area, downward trends in opiate ingestion, smoking and inhaling have been offset by an upward trend in drug injection. In China and Myanmar, where drug injection is common, the sharing of contaminated injection equipment has contributed to the spread of HIV infection. Increased availability of opiates, perhaps as a result of the increased presence of trafficking in the area, has led to a rise in injection of opiates among youth throughout Viet Nam. The more traditional form of opium smoking and the resulting dependence are prevalent mainly in the highland areas among older persons. 318. There have only been isolated reports of trafficking in and abuse of cocaine in the region.
319. The illicit manufacture of and trade in amphetamine-type stimulants are spreading, reaching record levels in some countries in the region. Seizure data indicate that China and Myanmar are major sources of the illicitly manufactured methamphetamine found on illicit markets in those countries and elsewhere, although laboratories for the illicit manufacture of that substance have been found in other countries in the region as well. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region has seen a sharp increase in seizures of consignments of the methamphetamine manufactured on the mainland, on their way to illicit markets in countries in the region such as Japan and the Philippines. Although most of the MDMA ("ecstasy") seized in East and South-East Asia is manufactured in Europe, police uncovered for the first time in November 1997 a laboratory in China manufacturing the substance. The manufacture of MDMA was reported in Indonesia as well. 320. The abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants, particularly amphetamine and methamphetamine, is expanding significantly in some countries in the region. While levels of drug abuse and trafficking have been fluctuating in Japan since the 1950s, in recent years there has been a new upward trend in the number of arrests for abuse of and trafficking in stimulants. It should be mentioned, however, that the proportion of the population abusing drugs in Japan appears to have remained low compared with most Western countries. The Board notes with concern that the abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants is spreading quickly among younger persons in the Philippines and Thailand. In Thailand, both the abuse of MDMA and the number of seizures of that substance are reported to be rising. The abuse of MDMA continues to be a problem in Indonesia as well. 321. While it appears that steps have been taken to strengthen law enforcement efforts to intercept the movement of precursors from China to Myanmar, the smuggling of ephedrine from India into Myanmar has been detected by Indian authorities.
322. The increasing trend towards multiple drug abuse in the region continued through 1998. For example, a sizeable number of persons in China and Viet Nam abused both tranquillizers and opiates. 323. The abuse of volatile solvents, particularly glue sniffing, has been reported to be on the increase in several countries in the region, including Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Thailand. That form of drug abuse is often associated with younger children in difficult circumstances, usually in depressed urban areas. Toluene, an industrial solvent used in the manufacture of paint thinner and controlled as a precursor in Table II of the 1988 Convention, is being sold by criminal groups for abuse in Japan. Missions 324. The Board sent a mission to Myanmar in March 1998. Myanmar continues to be one of the largest producers of opium and heroin in the world. A significant proportion of the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in East and South-East Asia takes place in that country. There is a clear political commitment by the Central Committee for Drug Abuse Control to drug control and alternative development. For instance, the reorganization and strengthening of the Committee and law enforcement activities resulted in intensified efforts to eradicate illicit crops and in increased drug seizures. The Board encourages all government ministries to cooperate fully with the Committee. 325. The international assistance provided to Myanmar since 1988 has been minimal. The Board notes that the scope of drug control programmes in Myanmar is limited. The Board hopes that the Government will fulfil its commitment under the eradication plan. International assistance is needed to achieve long-term results, particularly in order to provide alternative sources of income for those who currently rely on the cultivation of opium poppy as a subsistence crop. 326. The Board calls on the Government of Myanmar to place under the national drug law all narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors under the international drug control treaties and to apply fully the controls provided for under those treaties, including penal provisions, so that the necessary measures may be taken against any new trends in the abuse and illicit manufacture of drugs, in particular psychotropic substances. The Board also invites the competent authorities to examine the mechanism for compiling data and reporting to the Board in a timely manner, as required under those treaties. 327. It has increasingly become necessary to identify the sources of precursors being smuggled into Myanmar, as well as the routes being used to smuggle those precursors, and to find out any new methods being used in illicit drug manufacture. The Board trusts that particular efforts will be made by the Government to locate clandestine laboratories manufacturing methamphetamine, in addition to those manufacturing heroin, and to cooperate, as necessary, with neighbouring countries in order to prevent the diversion and smuggling of the precursors required for that illicit activity. The Board invites the Government to make further efforts to determine the extent of drug abuse in Myanmar, especially in the light of the rapid spread of HIV infection, and to develop appropriate countermeasures. Major developments 328. Drug trafficking and drug abuse in South Asia continue to be largely transit-related, owing to the close proximity of the region to the world's two main opiate-producing areas: the Golden Crescent and the Golden Triangle. The illicit cultivation of narcotic crops in countries in South Asia has remained relatively limited and the resulting illicit drug products have been destined mainly for illicit markets within the region. India continues to cooperate closely with the Board in an effort to control international trade in narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors. On many occasions, India has prevented the diversion of controlled substances into illicit channels. Problems in drug control in South Asian countries are largely attributable to lack of adequate resources for the implementation of national legislation or regulations and, in cases involving pharmaceutical products and precursors, to inadequate control of domestic distribution channels. One recent concern is the growing abuse of psychotropic substances and polydrug abuse. Treaty adherence 329. Of the six States in South Asia, four are parties to the 1961 Convention, three are parties to the 1971 Convention and five are parties to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges the Government of Bhutan, which is not a party to the 1961 Convention or the 1971 Convention, and the Government of Nepal, which is not a party to the 1971 Convention, to accede at the earliest possible date to those treaties. The Board also welcomes the announcement of the Government of Maldives, which is not a party to any of the international drug control treaties, that the necessary steps for accession to those treaties will be taken shortly. Regional cooperation 330. The Board notes with appreciation the signing of extradition treaties and mutual legal assistance treaties between the authorities of India and those of nine other countries. The Board welcomes the ongoing collaboration at the subregional level, including the activities being carried out by regional bodies, such as the Drug Advisory Programme of the Colombo Plan Bureau, the secretariat of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation, and by a number of non-governmental organizations in implementing drug control programmes. The Board trusts that cooperation initiated in 1996 between the Government of India and the Governments of China and Pakistan will be further developed. National legislation, policy and action 331. The Board appreciates that the Government of Maldives established in 1997 the Narcotics Control Board and intends to prepare a rapid assessment survey and a national master plan for drug control. In Nepal, a new drug control policy and a new strategy for reducing illicit drug demand were included in the ninth five-year plan. The Board once again note 37 urges the Government of Nepal to adopt the five new draft laws related to drug control that were developed with UNDCP assistance. 332. The Board also urges the Governments of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to proceed with the consideration of draft amendments to update existing legislation in line with the provisions of the 1988 Convention. The Board encourages the Government of India to speed up the updating of existing legislation by amending the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act and adopting the Foreign Exchange Management Act and draft legislation on money-laundering. The draft legislation on money-laundering would constitute the first comprehensive legislation in India to combat money-laundering, in compliance with its obligations under the 1988 Convention. 333. The Board appreciates recent demand reduction activities carried out in Bangladesh, India and Maldives. In 1998, the authorities of Maldives initiated a drug awareness programme for schoolchildren. In Bangladesh, a national drug demand reduction strategy has been formulated and new treatment centres for drug addicts have been set up by non-governmental organizations, as well as by the Government. The Board trusts that those initiatives will receive the necessary support. Numerous activities in the field of demand reduction were carried out in India, including activities on the prevention of drug abuse in the workplace. 334. The Board notes that, with regard to supply reduction, large numbers of law enforcement officers have been trained in countries in the region. India has extended its export controls to cover additional precursors used in the illicit manufacture of amphetamines and potassium permanganate. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse
335. Cannabis eradication campaigns are conducted regularly in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka but illicit cultivation of the plant has continued. Most of the harvested cannabis is destined for use within South Asia, though a relatively small amount is smuggled into countries outside of the region. There have been infrequent reports of the abuse and sale of hashish oil in Maldives. 336. Large quantities of heroin have been smuggled into countries in South Asia out of Afghanistan, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Pakistan and Thailand, mainly to be shipped further, to illicit markets in Europe and North America, but also to be abused locally. The abuse of heroin by injection began to spread in Bangladesh, India and Nepal in about the year 1989. Today, there is a major concern in several areas of the region, especially in urban centres, with regard to the link between the spread of AIDS and the abuse of drugs by injection, which has been clearly established in the region. Sri Lanka remains the exception; in that country, inhaling the vapours of heated heroin is the predominant method used to administer that drug. 337. In India, most of the opiates seized in 1998 originated in south-west Asia and had reached India by land as well as by sea; smaller quantities came from local sources (either licit or illicit). The heroin in the biggest seizures made in India in 1998 originated in Kabul and was first brought to Peshawar in Pakistan. The total quantity of heroin seized in India in 1997 was approximately 1 tonne. In Sri Lanka, a significant amount of the heroin that is abused is brought from India in boats by traffickers operating between southern India and the western coast of Sri Lanka. 338. Codeine-based cough medicines continue to be widely abused drugs in South Asia. Brands such as Phensedyl, either diverted or in the form of counterfeit products, are abused in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. They are smuggled across borders that are difficult to patrol. There have been reports of seizures of codeine-based cough medicines with a higher codeine content than legally manufactured cough medicines. Bangladesh has reportedly been provided with counterfeit products. The abuse of synthetic narcotic drugs, such as pethidine, has also been reported in countries in the region. 339. In India, because of the elaborate system for monitoring the movement and distribution of acetic anhydride, seizures of acetic anhydride have considerably diminished over the last few years. It is suspected that acetic anhydride is now increasingly being diverted into illicit channels using as a ruse sales on the high seas, an internationally accepted commercial practice by which the actual importer can even at the last moment sell the consignment to someone else. Recently, the diversion of acetic anhydride has been prevented in Sri Lanka. That may be an indication that Sri Lanka has been targeted by traffickers as a transit country to be used to ship acetic anhydride to heroin-manufacturing countries nearby. 340. The Board is concerned that, in Bangladesh, the use of chemicals controlled under the 1988 Convention in, for example, the textile and garment manufacturing industries, tanning and dyeing is reportedly not covered by existing regulations and there is no system for regulating their manufacture, their imports and their exports or for monitoring their use. This is particularly troubling, as the very large textile and garment manufacturing industry in the country requires the import of substantial quantities of acetic anhydride. Reports indicate that large quantities of sulphuric acid are manufactured in the country as well.
341. The analgesic buprenorphine is increasingly being abused in South Asia and has already become one of the main drugs abused in some parts of the region. Buprenorphine is reportedly abused mostly by young men who live in urban centres in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. Reports indicate that, in recent years, there have been cases involving the abuse and/or seizure of buprenorphine of Indian origin in Bangladesh and Nepal and also in countries outside the region, such as Armenia and Azerbaijan. In response to reports on the growing abuse of buprenorphine, manufacturers of that substance have been asked by the competent authorities of India to introduce a number of control measures. The Board calls on the Government of India to increase its efforts to ensure that pharmacies follow prescription requirements for buprenorphine. 342. Other medicinal products, such as hypnotics and sedatives and anxiolytics (barbiturates and benzodiazepines), continue to be abused in most countries in South Asia. Nepal has reported an increase in the abuse of nitrazepam (Nitrosun) smuggled out of India. India has reported the abuse of diazepam and Sri Lanka has reported the small-scale abuse of diazepam and flunitrazepam. Deficiencies in the control of domestic distribution channels and the resulting smuggling appear to be the main source of the substances that are abused in the region. 343. In India, law enforcement efforts by different agencies launched against methaqualone trafficking and the introduction of regulatory measures to control precursors in the last couple of years have led to the dismantling of several clandestine laboratories used in the illicit manufacture of methaqualone and to a significant reduction in the amount of that substance that is illicitly manufactured. Traffickers, however, have continued to obtain precursors from sources outside of India for the manufacture of Mandrax (a preparation containing methaqualone) in clandestine laboratories in various other countries. 344. In India, control measures for precursors have, on several occasions, prevented the diversion of ephedrine, particularly to Central America and North America. Missions 345. A mission of the Board visited India in October 1998, in particular to discuss with the Government issues related to the licit cultivation of opium poppy and stocks of opium in that country. The Board appreciates the strong commitment and efforts by the Government to maintain a sustained and stable source of licit opium to meet global demand and the additional control measures taken to prevent diversion. 346. In order to face the new challenges emerging as a result of increased illicit trafficking and drug abuse, the Board calls on the Government of India to establish an effective coordinating body and adopt, as a matter of urgency, the master plan for drug control drafted in 1994, so that a comprehensive national drug control policy and strategy can be developed to ensure the full involvement and concerted efforts of the ministries and agencies concerned in various aspects of drug control. 347. The Board is pleased to note that a series of control measures have been taken in India to prevent the abuse of buprenorphine and it hopes that further efforts will be made to ensure their effective implementation. The Board encourages the Government to establish close cooperation with the Governments of neighbouring countries, such as Bangladesh and Nepal, with a view to putting a stop to the smuggling of buprenorphine from India into those countries. 348. As the domestic consumption of morphine has decreased to an extremely low level over the last few years, the Government of India should take effective measures to ensure its adequate availability for medical purposes. 349. The Board sent a mission to Bangladesh in October 1998. The Board appreciates the efforts made by the Government to bring its national legislation on drug control in line with the international drug control treaties. The Board hopes that the amendment to the National Narcotics Control Act 1990 and the rules framed thereunder will come into force at the end of 1998 as scheduled. 350. The Board notes with concern the weaknesses in the current control system in Bangladesh, particularly with respect to the system of distribution and inspection, and trusts that the Government will take the necessary measures to remedy the situation, thereby preventing the abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances diverted from licit sources. New laws should provide the Government with adequate instruments for the control of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors. Efforts should be made to ensure the enforcement and implementation of those laws, which will require the strengthening of the organizational and administrative structures in the judicial and law enforcement areas. 351. The Board notes that implementation of the five-year master plan on drug abuse control is to be completed in 1999 and encourages the Government of Bangladesh to ensure the smooth continuation of the current activities in a second plan. Major developments 352. In Afghanistan, the large-scale illicit cultivation of opium poppy appears to be on the increase, although, due to bad weather conditions, opium production is expected to be lower in 1998 than in 1997. While the illicit manufacture of morphine and heroin continues, there are indications that all the illicit manufacture of heroin that formerly occurred in Pakistan has been moved to Afghanistan. The Board is concerned that opium and heroin have been stockpiled in northern Afghanistan, near the border of that country with Tajikistan. It is obvious that the stocks have been prepared for the purpose of ensuring regular and uninterrupted deliveries of opium and heroin across the Afghan border, into Tajikistan and other countries. The quantities of opiates intercepted in West Asia have increased. 353. Most countries in the region are used by traffickers as transit countries for consignments of cannabis and opiates originating in Afghanistan or Pakistan and destined mainly for Europe and also to other regions. Precursors used in the illicit manufacture of heroin are also trafficked through many countries in the region. 354. There are estimates that up to 65 per cent of all Afghan opium, morphine and heroin is trafficked through central Asia. Available information suggests that, during the past two years, smugglers have utilized new routes through the member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in central Asia. After being moved through central Asia, the drugs are further channelled to Belarus, the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the Baltic States, which serve as points of entry into western Europe. The Board welcomes national and regional initiatives to promote drug control, especially in the CIS member States. 355. The prevalence of the abuse of opiates is high and appears to be rising in Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan; the abuse of heroin is also reported as increasing, but to a lesser degree, in other countries in West Asia. In spite of those developments, the level of abuse of cannabis, heroin and psychotropic substances in many countries in the region note 38 in general appears to be low compared with the level in countries in some other regions. Due to transit trafficking, drug abuse problems in the CIS member States in central Asia continue to rise. The Board is pleased that many Governments in West Asia are fully aware of the drug abuse problem and that some have started or are planning to assess the actual extent of such abuse. The Board encourages Governments to give higher priority to the prevention and treatment of drug abuse. Treaty adherence 356. Since the last report of the Board was published, Georgia has acceded to the 1971 Convention and to the 1988 Convention and Iraq has acceded to the 1988 Convention. Of the 24 States in West Asia, 18 are now parties to the 1961 Convention in its amended form, 4 are parties to the 1961 Convention in its unamended form, 23 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 22 are parties to the 1988 Convention. 357. The Board notes that the Government of Georgia has declared its intention to accede to the 1961 Convention and trusts that parliamentary approval will be given before the end of 1998. The Board notes that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran has finalized preparations for accession to the 1971 Convention and that the Government of Pakistan, which is a party to the 1961 Convention in its unamended form, is considering becoming a party to the 1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention. 358. The Board notes with satisfaction that almost all countries in the region have become parties to the international drug control treaties. It encourages the Government of Georgia to accede to the 1961 Convention, the Government of Azerbaijan to accede to the 1961 Convention and the 1971 Convention, and the Governments of Israel and Kuwait to accede to the 1988 Convention. Furthermore, the Board encourages the Governments of Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Turkey to become parties to the 1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention. 359. Although a new law in Lebanon authorizes the lifting of bank secrecy in criminal cases, the Board remains concerned that the Government of that country has not yet withdrawn its reservations on the provisions in the 1988 Convention against money-laundering, in spite of objections raised by several Governments. note 39 Regional cooperation 360. The Board notes with satisfaction the further strengthening of regional cooperation in West Asia. 361. The Economic Cooperation Organization, during its Fifth Summit Meeting, held in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, in May 1998, called on its member States to cooperate in combating the smuggling of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and adopted plans for the training of drug control experts and for periodic reporting on the drug situation in West Asia. 362. Efforts are under way to create a drug "security belt" around Afghanistan through the promotion of coordinated drug control measures by countries in the vicinity of Afghanistan (Armenia, Azerbaijan, China, Georgia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). 363. A training course for customs authorities, organized by the World Customs Organization and hosted by Turkey, in which most countries in West Asia participated, raised awareness of the necessity for precursor control in the region. In addition, the Governments of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan are participating in a subregional project to improve precursor control in South Asia and West Asia. 364. The Board also welcomes the signing by Pakistan of an extradition and judicial cooperation treaty with the United Arab Emirates and the preparation of similar agreements with the Islamic Republic of Iran, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia. 365. The Board encourages the authorities of countries and areas in West Asia to reinitiate the border control cooperation that had started in previous years, for example, between Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey and between the Palestinian Authority and the following countries: Egypt, Israel and Jordan. A more recent positive example is the cooperation between the Governments of Jordan, Lebanon and the Syrian Arab Republic in dismantling a stimulant trafficking ring. 366. The Board encourages the League of Arab States to provide the necessary means to ensure the implementation of the Arab drug control strategy adopted by the Council of Arab Ministers for Social Affairs. National legislation, policy and action 367. The Board notes with satisfaction the adoption of national drug control programmes in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan and the strengthening of drug control legislation in several CIS member States. New laws aimed at regulating all aspects of the licit movement of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors have been adopted in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. A draft law against trafficking in illicit narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors is under consideration in Azerbaijan and should be ready for adoption in the near future. New or amended criminal codes have been adopted or are about to be adopted in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. 368. The Board welcomes the adoption by Lebanon in March 1998 of a law related to narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors and the establishment of a national council on drugs. It regrets, however, that import controls for psychotropic substances have been weakened, although cases of diversion to the illicit traffic have come to the attention of the Board. The Board notes that, in Pakistan, the Control of Narcotics Substances Act of 1997 is expected to be extended to the Provincially Administered Tribal Areas soon. The Board notes with satisfaction that the Government of Pakistan is reviewing its criminal justice system to enable it to deal with court cases in a more expeditious manner and to convict major drug traffickers. 369. The Board notes that Turkey has issued regulations on controlled deliveries. The Board trusts that the regulations will enhance regional and international cooperation in combating drug trafficking and the diversion of essential chemicals. 370. The Board is concerned about the fact that effective measures against money-laundering have not been adopted in many countries in West Asia and particularly in those countries having high investment rates and a high potential to be exploited for money-laundering (e.g. Israel, Lebanon and many countries on the Persian Gulf). 371. In that connection, the Board encourages the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, which is a member of the Financial Action Task Force, to participate actively in developing measures against money-laundering and to guide its member States. The Board notes with satisfaction that Turkey has already issued implementing regulations on money-laundering and has established a financial crime investigation board. The Board also welcomes the fact that the Government of the United Arab Emirates is currently examining a new law against money-laundering and that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran is considering drafting a law against money-laundering that is in accordance with the 1988 Convention. 372. The Board commends the implementation of new programmes for drug abuse prevention and treatment in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Israel, Jordan, Pakistan and Turkey. The Board also commends the Islamic Republic of Iran for having started a nationwide assessment of the extent of drug abuse and notes that Jordan, Pakistan and Turkey are planning similar activities for the near future. Cultivation, production, manufacture, trafficking and abuse
373. Cannabis is illicitly cultivated or grows wild on extensive areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan (in the Tribal Areas). No cannabis eradication has been reported to have been undertaken in 1998 in Afghanistan or Pakistan, although the two countries continue to be major sources of the cannabis resin seized in several parts of the world. The number of cannabis seizures made by the Government of Pakistan continues to be high. 374. Cannabis grows wild in CIS member States in central Asia, particularly on large areas in the Chu valley, which straddles the border between Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and is a supply source for international traffickers. The Board notes the efforts of the drug enforcement authorities of Kyrgyzstan, which in 1997 eradicated 15,000 hectares of the estimated 60,000 hectares of wild-growing cannabis in the country. 375. In the Caucasus, most of the cannabis cultivated is intended for the domestic market. Authorities have reported the eradication of significant amounts of cannabis. 376. In Lebanon, the illicit cultivation of cannabis has practically ceased. 377. Most of the countries in West Asia are used by traffickers to trans-ship large amounts of cannabis and cannabis resin to consumer countries in the region as well as in Europe and Oceania. Seizures of both cannabis and cannabis resin have been reported in West Asia. 378. As cannabis continues to be the most commonly abused drug in many countries in West Asia, its abuse should be dealt with through adequate national prevention programmes. 379. In Afghanistan, the commitment of the authorities to ban illicit poppy cultivation and the processing of opiates is questionable. It has been observed that while illicit poppy cultivation has been reduced in some areas, it has emerged in areas that were previously unaffected. Due to bad weather conditions, the amount of opium harvested is expected to be less in 1998 than in 1997 (2,100 tonnes in 1998, compared with 2,800 tonnes in 1997). Despite the fact that preliminary estimates of the poppy crop harvested in Pakistan suggest an increase in 1998 over the figure for 1997, the Board trusts that the Government will strengthen its efforts to achieve complete enforcement of the ban by the year 2000, in accordance with the commitment that it has made. Illicit heroin manufacture is reported to have moved completely from Pakistan to Afghanistan. Laboratories for the illicit manufacture of heroin and morphine are assumed to exist in Afghanistan, mostly in the Nangarhar and Hellmand areas and close to its border with Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. Trafficking groups in the producing areas enjoy greater security than before because of weak local law enforcement. The Board is concerned about reports of large stocks of opium and heroin in the north of Afghanistan, as well as about the fall, in many parts of the country, of the prices of heroin and chemicals used in illicit manufacture of heroin (mainly acetic anhydride). 380. Chemicals used in illicit heroin manufacture in Afghanistan, often routed through Pakistan, originate mainly in Europe, but also in China and India. Many countries in West Asia are used by traffickers as transit countries for those chemicals. Pakistan authorities have foiled several attempts to smuggle acetic anhydride into Afghanistan out of China and countries in Europe via Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates. 381. As controls over those chemicals are being strengthened in other countries in south, south-east and south-west Asia, the CIS member States in central Asia are increasingly being used as alternative sources for their supply. Some of them are, or have the potential to be, manufacturers of key chemicals required for the manufacture of heroin and methamphetamine. Moreover, they are also used as transit countries for smuggling those chemicals (in particular, acetic anhydride) into Afghanistan and other countries in south-west Asia out of industrial establishments in the Russian Federation, as well as out of other European countries. Since 1995, Uzbek customs officials have stopped attempts to illegally export to Afghanistan 72 tonnes of chemicals without which the processing of raw materials into heroin is impossible. A total of 41 tonnes of acetic anhydride destined for Afghanistan were seized by Turkmen authorities in different operations during the first seven months of 1998. 382. The Board underlines that more efforts have to be made by all countries in West Asia to intercept such chemicals. 383. Opium currently produced illicitly in central Asia does not significantly influence the world illicit market but that subregion has a considerable potential for becoming a greater source of illicit narcotic drugs. Campaigns to eradicate illicit crop cultivation are conducted annually in all CIS member States in central Asia. The Board is concerned about increased heroin processing and the establishment of clandestine laboratories in central Asia. 384. In the countries of the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia), most of the poppy cultivation occurs on very small plots and is largely, if not exclusively, intended for the domestic market. 385. In Turkey, reports of declining seizures of acetic anhydride and heroin may be a sign that heroin processing is being partly transferred to other countries in the subregion. 386. In Lebanon, no major illicit poppy cultivation and manufacture of opiates were detected in 1998. However, as international assistance did not reach the expected level, and the timely implementation of government programmes to provide alternative sources of income has faced difficulties, there is a risk that farmers may revert to illicit poppy and/or cannabis cultivation. The Board wishes to emphasize that international assistance at an opportune time is a prerequisite for the implementation of the Action Plan on International Cooperation on the Eradication of Illicit Drug Crops and on Alternative Development, contained in General Assembly resolution S-20/4 E. 387. A substantial proportion of opiates produced in Afghanistan is abused in West Asia as well as in South Asia; the remainder is smuggled into Europe. Many countries in West Asia are used by traffickers to trans-ship to Europe large amounts of opiates originating mainly in Afghanistan and, to a lesser degree in Pakistan. Most countries in West Asia have reported increasing quantities of seized opiates. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the quantity of opiates seized continues to be the largest worldwide and continues to increase. Since there are now many different drug trafficking routes, it is of the utmost importance that Governments in West Asia cooperate and consider strengthening controls on their common borders. 388. Although it is assumed that the quantities of drugs seized in CIS member States continue to be a small percentage of the increasing quantities being trafficked through West Asia, the Board notes that most countries in the region report the seizure of sharply increasing quantities of opiates, in particular heroin. For instance, at the end of 1997, nearly 2,000 kg of heroin on its way to western Europe through Turkey was seized by the Turkmen security service. 389. The Caucasus has emerged as a new corridor for transit trafficking in illicit drugs because of the porous borders of the CIS member States and the increasing prevalence of organized crime. The Board urges the authorities in those countries to enhance the coordination of law enforcement agencies in fighting the rise in crime. 390. The Islamic Republic of Iran is one of the main illicit markets for Afghan opium. Opium abuse in the Islamic Republic of Iran is widespread among the elderly in rural areas, and among the wealthy in cities; young people in cities have turned to cheap heroin, which they smoke or inject. 391. The extent of opiate abuse in Afghanistan is unknown, but it is believed to be widespread and increasing. The abuse of heroin continues to be particularly widespread in Pakistan, where heroin is increasingly being abused by injection. The abuse of heroin is reported to be increasing in many other countries in West Asia, including countries that were previously not very affected by such abuse. 392. In CIS member States, opiate abuse appears to have increased significantly in the past four years, especially among young people, as has drug abuse along the known trafficking routes. The practice of injecting drugs is of particular concern, as drug abuse by injection has become the main vector for the spread of HIV. In Kazakhstan, where approximately 80 per cent of persons identified as being infected with HIV were drug abusers, the Government has implemented a number of drug abuse prevention and treatment activities aimed at reducing the incidence of HIV among injecting drug abusers. The abuse of opiates by injection is also common in the Caucasus, where drug abuse by injection is one of the prime vectors for the spread of HIV. 393. Cocaine abuse continues to be negligible in the region. Small-scale seizures of cocaine indicate limited abuse of that substance in Israel, Lebanon, Turkey and Turkmenistan and in the countries of the Caucasus. The processing of cocaine hydrochloride from coca paste in Lebanon has virtually stopped.
394. According to seizure reports, the abuse of various stimulants, smuggled mainly through Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey, mostly under the brand name Captagon, remains widespread in the Arab peninsula. The coastal borders of the countries on the Persian Gulf are increasingly being used for such smuggling. As in previous reports, the Board encourages all countries concerned to cooperate in order to determine the origin, trafficking routes and composition of the various products involved. The Board welcomes the fact that the Syrian and Turkish authorities cooperated in the autumn of 1997 to dismantle a stimulant trafficking ring. 395. The Government of Kazakhstan is concerned about the presence of a vast natural growing area of the Ephedra plant, covering an estimated 350,000 hectares, in the mountainous area in the southern part of the country. In 1997 alone, Kazakh law enforcement units seized 13 tonnes of Ephedra herbal material, which is believed to have been intended for the production of ephedrine and other stimulants. Ephedrine is either converted in home laboratories into methcathinone (ephedrone), which is injected or used as a precursor in the manufacture of methamphetamine. The illicit manufacture of ephedrine from Ephedra plants has also continued in Kyrgyzstan. 396. In the CIS member States, there has been in recent years increasing evidence of the abuse of amphetamine-type drugs, including "ecstasy" from western Europe. The abuse of "ecstasy" originating in Europe is also increasing in other countries in West Asia. 397. In Israel, a rise in abuse of LSD and various amphetamine-type drugs, in particular "ecstasy", has been experienced. In addition, amphetamine-type "designer" drugs not yet under international control are being abused in Israel. In July 1998, Israel placed several "designer" drugs under national control. 398. The number of seizures of depressants (secobarbital) in Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic have declined. Information on the abuse of pharmaceutical products (stimulants and sedatives, including benzodiazepines) has been made available by the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority only. The Board trusts that countries in West Asia that are planning an assessment of the extent of drug abuse will include the abuse of pharmaceutical products in their survey. The Board commends the Government of Pakistan for conducting in 1998 two workshops on the rational prescription of psychotropic substances. Missions 399. In February 1998, the Board sent a mission to Israel and the Palestinian Autonomous Areas. Under the relevant agreements between the Palestinian Authority and the Government of Israel, activities related to the reduction of the illicit supply and abuse of drugs have to be coordinated by both parties. 400. As close cooperation between the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority is in the best interest of both parties, the Board urges both to consider options to establish an effective mechanism for the coordination of all matters dealing with drug control and to examine the current obstacles to effective coordination with a view to removing them. 401. The Board is pleased that the monitoring of the licit movement of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in Israel is functioning well enough to prevent most diversions from licit trade and that importance is attached to activities aimed at demand reduction. The Board hopes that the Government of Israel will speed up the process of updating national legislation that would enable Israel to ratify the 1988 Convention. 402. The Board therefore urges the Government of Israel to accord higher priority to drug control issues and to take all the steps necessary to facilitate the adoption of the relevant laws and ratification of the 1988 Convention. The Board also urges the Government to establish as a matter of priority a legislative basis for the implementation of article 12 of the 1988 Convention. 403. In the Palestinian Autonomous Areas, the Board notes with satisfaction the efforts undertaken by the Palestinian Authority to institutionalize drug control, in particular by preparing comprehensive drug control legislation and strengthening its interdiction efforts. It encourages the Palestinian Authority to adopt, as soon as possible, the new comprehensive drug control legislation and apply it uniformly in all the areas subject to its authority. 404. The Board trusts that other Governments and international bodies, within their field of competence, will assist the Palestinian Authority in its endeavour to reduce the supply of and demand for drugs intended for illicit conumption in the areas under its authority and to strengthen its drug abuse treatment and rehabilitation capabilities. 405. A mission of the Board visited Georgia from 26 to 28 August 1998. 406. Legislation for the control of the licit distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in Georgia is currently being drafted. The Board is, however, concerned at the slow pace of progress in that regard and hopes that greater progress will be made to introduce legislation in line with the international drug control treaties. 407. There is no effective control by the customs authorities of Georgia over the national borders, as those borders are contested and therefore not well protected in a number of areas. As such, the customs authorities and the Ministry of the Interior, which are responsible for the customs control and the security of the borders, are not in a position to deal with drug trafficking in those areas. They are, moreover, very poorly equipped and in urgent need of technical assistance to enable them to function efficiently. That situation has made it difficult for the Government to deal effectively with the problem of drug trafficking, which is greatly facilitated by the strategic geographical position of the country in the Caucasus. Major developments 408. While Europe has been a major destination for drugs, it also has emerged as a producer of cannabis and synthetic drugs. MDMA ("ecstasy") is manufactured clandestinely in Europe and trafficked worldwide. Unclear messages about the dangers of synthetic drugs, particularly MDMA (the toxic effects of which on the human brain has been confirmed by recent evidence), may have contributed to increased demand for such drugs. In its report for 1997, the Board emphasized the difficulty of preventing drug abuse in an environment where it is increasingly being viewed as an almost normal cultural phenomenon.note 40 409. Most synthetic drugs seized in western Europe are also manufactured in western European countries, mainly in the Netherlands, and in some eastern European countries; the manufacture of synthetic drugs is spreading to other countries as well. The synthetic drugs manufactured in Europe are intended for illicit markets in European countries and in many countries outside Europe. 410. Heroin abuse has risen in some western European countries. In others, it has remained stable or decreased and the average age of heroin abusers is increasing. There has been a shift away from injecting heroin and towards smoking heroin; the shift has been made possible by the increased purity of the drug. Heroin prices have decreased, resulting in increased availability of the substance on illicit markets. The Board is concerned that the heroin revival may also be a result of the misconception that smoking heroin is free of major risks. 411. The number of cocaine seizures continues to be high. Unlike the abuse of synthetic drugs or heroin, which have received much attention, cocaine abuse does not appear to be viewed as a major public health problem by the general public. Polydrug abuse is on the rise, representing a formidable challenge to those involved in treating drug abusers. 412. The Board notes with appreciation that European Governments have been placing increasing emphasis on efforts to reduce drug abuse and illicit trafficking. They have also stressed the importance of the prevention of drug abuse as a tool for achieving long-lasting results in drug control. Treaty adherence 413. Since the last report of the Board was published, Lithuania has become a party to the 1988 Convention. Of the 44 States in Europe, 41 are parties to the 1961 Convention, 40 are parties to the 1971 Convention and 36 States and the European Community are parties to the 1988 Convention. 414. The Government of Belarus has indicated its intent to accede to the 1972 Protocol amending the 1961 Convention. note 41 The Government of Liechtenstein has indicated its intent to become a party to the 1971 Convention and the Government of Switzerland has indicated its intent to become a party to the 1988 Convention. 415. Albania is not a party to any of the international drug control treaties. For sever |